What does graphics study in Russian? Graphic arts. Modern Russian alphabet. Principles of Russian graphics. Letters and sounds
The content of the article
GRAPHICS AND SPELLING(from Greek orthos “correct” and grafo “I write”). Graphics is a set of signs used in a given writing system along with rules establishing correspondence between signs (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes); spelling is a system of rules that prescribe the choice of one of the spelling options provided for by the graphics of a given language, as well as a branch of the science of language that deals with spelling norms. The term “graphics” is close in meaning to the term “writing” (but is somewhat different in use ). On the other hand, the term "spelling" is sometimes used in an expanded sense to include graphics, for example when talking about spelling reforms. The term “letter” can be used in the same broad sense.
Writing is a way of fixing language with descriptive signs for the purpose of communication between people if it is impossible for them to communicate directly. With the advent of writing, language appeared in two forms of existence - oral speech (sounding, accessible to the ear) and written language(visible). It is impossible to imagine our world without writing. Newspapers, magazines, books that we read; The letters we write are our entire letter and our life. It is difficult to imagine that once there was no written language and people could only communicate through direct contact. If they found themselves far from each other, then communication stopped. In R. Kipling's tale How the first letter was written a little girl (the action takes place in prehistoric times) suddenly realized how good it would be if she could tell her mother, who was very far from her, that her father had broken a spear and he needed another one, the same one that was in their cave. She tried to express all this in a picture scratched on the bark. This was the first letter, although very imperfect: the mother completely misunderstood the girl, and because of this a lot of trouble arose.
It was the need for communication at a distance that led to the emergence of writing, the emergence of which significantly expanded the circle of our communication, because writing unites people not only in space, but also in time. Man of the 21st century. can learn about how people lived in ancient Egypt; Thanks to the finds of birch bark letters, we became acquainted with the concerns of the Novgorodians who lived in the 11th–15th centuries. The cultural and historical role of writing is enormous. Without writing, it was extremely difficult for people to convey their experience, their thoughts and feelings to other generations, to develop science, to create fiction. The advent of writing is the most important moment in the history and culture of any people.
Our writing, like all European writing systems, is sound-letter. It is called so because its basic units - letters - correspond to units of the sound (phonetic) system of the language, and not directly to words or their significant parts (morphemes), as is the case in hieroglyphic writing. For example, the word meaning “sun” is expressed in Russian writing by six letter signs, and in Chinese by one hieroglyph.
To understand the structure of our writing, we must first understand its relationship with the units of the sound system of the language. What sound units are conveyed by letters in Russian writing? The first answer that suggests itself is: these are sounds. And this assumption is confirmed by the following examples: ball, throne, waves, fight, culture, tornado, top, fog. However, other examples call this answer into question. What to do with words b e gu, pl I sat, sa d , lo and ka, sch astier, pos. d But? After all, we are actually talking b And gu, pl And satiate, sa T , lo w ka, sch A sya thie, By h n A . Maybe the letter does not convey sound at all? It is clear, at least, that in Russian writing a letter does not always denote a sound. The answer must be sought in the sound system of the Russian language.
Sound system of the Russian language.
How many sounds are there in the Russian language? This question cannot be answered precisely. The better a person's hearing, the more different shades of sound he will hear. And if you use instruments, it is clear that the more accurate the instrument, the more different sounds it will detect. However, we can say with absolute certainty how many basic, independent sounds there are in a language, i.e. those that can be used to distinguish words. Linguists call such meaningful sounds phonemes.
Russian has five vowel phonemes ( A, O, uh, And, at) and 34 consonants. How were they counted? It’s very simple: if there are words that differ only in two sounds, then these sounds are semantic distinguishers, phonemes. For example, words som And myself differ only in vowel sounds O And A. These are different phonemes. Words there And myself differ by consonant phonemes With And T etc.
But in the composition of words, sounds undergo changes. What does it mean? Compared to what do they change? In a word pain under stress the sound is clearly pronounced O. Without stress in the same root, the sound is pronounced just as clearly A: b A fly. The phonetic position changed: the stressed syllable became unstressed - and instead of one sound another sound appeared, instead O – A. And such a change, such an alternation of sounds always happens, no matter what word we take ( With O l – With A pour, st O l – st A la, V O l – V A la). After soft consonants, stressed sounds A, O, uh in an unstressed position alternate with And (etc I mo – pr And my, m I co – m And sleep, l e gky – l And gko, l e g – l And gla, t e many – t And crumple, with e m – s And shit etc.). Because of this exchange of sounds, there are four sound units that differ under stress ( A, O, uh, And), without stress they cease to differ and coincide in one sound And.
Alternation of sounds under the influence of position also occurs with consonants. It is also subject to strict phonetic laws. For example, at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants, paired voiced consonants change to voiceless: lo b ik – lo P, Moro h s – Moro With; layer V a – layer f, how much h it - how much With ko, table b IR - table P you... Under the influence of position in a word - in position before a sound ts- sound T changes to ts: O T ec - o ts tsy, and in some positions – to zero sound: sad T it's sad.
Phonetic positions in which the sounds cease to be distinguished are called weak, in contrast to strong positions in which the sounds are distinguished. For vowel sounds, the strong position is under stress. Weak position for vowels A, O, uh, And- without emphasis. Such different, dissimilar sounds O, A, And. But the change in these sounds is caused by phonetic position, and not by the need to distinguish meanings, which means that in terms of their function they are one and the same unit - the phoneme.
Russian graphics.
How does our writing convey the sound composition of words? What number of letters is necessary and at the same time sufficient to convey all the subtleties of the language? This number is different in every language. Previously, they thought that it was ideal for one letter to correspond to one sound, and always the same letter. Russian linguist N.F. Yakovlev proved that there should not be more letters in a language than there are basic, independent sounds.
In the Russian language, as we have seen, there are five vowel phonemes and 34 consonants. There are 39 sounds in total. And there are 33 letters in the alphabet. What explains this “shortage”? It turns out that you can “save” the number of letters. Yakovlev calculated the formula for constructing the most economical alphabet in terms of the number of letters. He showed that if a language has pairs of consonants that differ in the same attribute (for example, hardness - softness), then each pair can be designated by the same letter, and an additional attribute can be conveyed using the adjacent, next letter. The Russian alphabet prompted him to this idea. In Russian writing, paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness are conveyed by the same letter: for [ With] And [ With"] - one letter - With , For [ m] And [ m"] - one letter m etc. In total, there are 12 such pairs, differing only in hardness and softness, in the Russian language. This means that instead of 24 letters to convey these consonants, our letter makes do with 12 letters.
How do we distinguish a hard consonant from a soft one? Why don’t we confuse when reading when to say soft and when to say hard? Because the hardness-softness of the consonant is indicated by the next letter - the neighbor on the right. Letter pairs serve as such indicators of the softness-hardness of the preceding consonant A – I , O – e , at – Yu , uh – e , s – And (cf. small-crumpled, they say-chalk, onion-Luke, sir-gray, bald-fox). What if there is no vowel after a consonant? Then the “softening” role is played by the letter soft sign ( b ), which in itself does not denote any sound, but conveys the softness of the preceding consonant. So, it took 12 fewer consonants (12 letters were saved), but it was necessary to introduce a soft sign plus five more letters for vowels so that they denote not only the vowel phoneme, but also the softness of the preceding consonant.
This principle of designating hard-soft consonants is conventionally called syllabic.
The syllabic principle also determines the transmission of phonemes j(“yot”). What is the difference between the two words - wolves And Christmas trees- not literally, but with sounds? This can be seen from the transcription: [wolf" and]. These words are distinguished by sounds that distinguish meaning (phonemes) V And j. Phoneme j has its own letter - th , but this letter is used to convey j only after vowels at the end of a word and before consonants ( lei, watering can), and before the vowels the letter th not used: we do not write apple, southern, Yozhik etc., and we write apple, southern, hedgehog). Thus, in letters I , Yu , e , e not only vowels + the softness of the preceding consonant are conveyed: “concurrently” they perform one more job - they convey combinations j+ A, j+at, j+ O, j+ uh. In this case, one letter corresponds to a combination of sounds.
The syllabic principle is a striking feature of Russian graphics. It developed spontaneously, in the process of development of the Russian language, and turned out to be very convenient. Not only does it allow you to use fewer letters, but it also saves paper. After all, if there were no double set of letters for vowels, and the softness of consonants would always be indicated by a soft sign (for example, tjotya, loveblue- instead of aunt, I love you), then the words would be much longer in writing.
Until now, we have talked about the use of letters regardless of what words they are part of, when the choice of a letter is determined only by the environment of the transmitted sounds, the sound context. Such rules are called graphics rules, in contrast to spelling rules in the narrow sense of the word. They will be discussed further.
Russian spelling.
Now we move on to rules of another type, designed to convey sounds in weak positions in writing, i.e. in those in which two or more phonemes coincide in one sound. To correctly convey such a sound, you must first of all “free” it from the influence of position, and to do this, correlate it with the sound in a strong position (in the same significant part of the word), and then select the desired letter. This is exactly what we did at school when we checked for “questionable sounds.”
The secret of Russian spelling turns out to be simple: changes in sounds that occur under the influence of position are not conveyed in writing. Sounds in weak positions are marked in the same way as if they were in a strong position. This is not a whim, but a principle of our spelling. Our spelling is reasonable, it refuses to convey the accidental, determined by phonetic position.
It turns out that our spelling is not a jumble of many different rules. There is one thing general rule, applicable in a variety of cases at first glance: we write letters using the same rule O And w in a word l O woo w ka(we check both letters by the position of distinguishing sounds: l O vit, fishing w ek). Using the same rule we write the letter With in place of the sound [ h] at the beginning of a word With quit(examination: With tear off), and a letter d to indicate [ ts] in the word molo d tsa (check: molo d ec), and a letter d in place of the “missing” sound position in a word upon request pos d But(examination: opoz d at).
But it is necessary to check - correlate with a strong position - not only the sounds that have “suffered” from the position, but also those sounds of weak positions that have not changed in their sound: the unstressed vowel needs to be checked A in a word tr A va(so as not to write the letter O ), consonant f in a word shka f (so as not to write a letter at the end of a word V ).
So, in the rules of spelling, the choice of letter for a sound in a weak position is determined by what sound it alternates with in a strong position.
What is this unit that we convey by letter? Now we know that sounds, the change of which is caused by phonetic position, form the same sound unit - a phoneme. We convey it in writing, no matter what sound it is presented in a weak position. We always designate a phoneme by its strong position. Therefore, the main principle of our orthography - the principle of ignoring positional alternations of sounds in writing - is called phonemic, or phonemic. This is a very convenient principle. It works when writing both vowels and consonants, and in all parts of the word - not only in roots, but also in suffixes and endings. It provides a uniform representation of morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of language), and this helps us recognize words easily when reading.
Why do we often find it difficult to decide which letter to write? There are several reasons. First of all, a language does not always have a word in which the sound being tested corresponds to a sound in a strong position. Then you have to remember which letter to write, for example in words O laziness, To A empty, vit I s, uh tazh, se With tra, ve h de. In addition, in our spelling there are deviations from the main principle. For example, at the root - height/growth- occurs only under stress O, and without accent we write that letter O (R O if, hydrogen O if), That A : R A style, vyr A whelped, manufactured A become. The same with the root - zor/zar-: writing h A rya, h A rnitsa, although under stress O: h O ri, h O ryka. And at the root - float-, on the contrary, under stress it is written only A – pl A wat, without accent - O : swimmer. Such spellings, which contradict the main principle of our spelling, are called conventional or traditional; they, as a rule, reflect the facts of the history of the Russian language.
We examined the basic principles of the rules for literal transmission of the sound composition of words. In addition to these rules, spelling in the broad sense of the word includes rules for continuous and hyphenated spelling, as well as rules for using uppercase-lowercase letters. The collection of rules for using punctuation marks is called punctuation. These rules have their own laws and their own scope of action - not the word, but the sentence and the text. The name itself - “punctuation marks” - suggests that our writing takes care of “stammers” in the perception and pronunciation of the text. “Stuttering” when reading about punctuation marks, our eye gives a signal to the voice to make stops - pauses, to highlight certain parts of the sentence with intonation. And this helps the listener to understand what we read out loud. Punctuation separates and highlights certain syntactic units in the text.
From the history of Russian graphics and spelling.
The basis of modern Russian writing is the Cyrillic alphabet, compiled in 863 (this year is considered the date of birth of Slavic writing) by the Greek philosopher and first Slavic educator Cyril (Constantine) to translate Greek liturgical books into Slavic. Thus, the history of writing in Rus' is inextricably linked with the history of Christianity, the millennium of which was celebrated in 1988. The Cyrillic alphabet was based on the Greek alphabet in its “ceremonial” form (the so-called charter), which was supplemented with missing letters - to convey phonemes absent in Greek; including letters
Books written on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet came to Rus' at the end of the 10th century, i.e. almost one hundred and fifty years after the first translations of Cyril and his brother Methodius. These books, brought from Bulgaria, were written not in Old Russian, but in Old Church Slavonic, which was understandable in that era throughout the Slavic world.
It is no coincidence that the outstanding Russian and Polish linguist I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay called Russian letter“a dress from someone else’s shoulder.” Naturally, this dress had to be adjusted and sewn in here and there.
Some letters of the Old Church Slavonic script turned out to be superfluous for the Old Russian language. Thus, the Old Russian language has already lost the nasal vowel sounds conveyed by the so-called yus - large and small, since the nasal vowels coincided in pronunciation with the sounds denoted in writing by letters at, Yu, I, the letters large and small yus turned out to be unnecessary, and they gradually stopped writing them. Some letters of the Old Church Slavonic language were useful to Old Russian, although over time they changed their function. So, the letter “er” ( ъ) at the end of words after hard consonants conveyed a very short vowel sound (the sound was average between [a] and [s]). Already approximately from the 13th century. this vowel sound at the end of words stopped being pronounced, but the letter ъ continued to be written according to tradition.
Some endings were also written differently, for example, was in, But went to the floor e , became, But morning. You should have known what was being written , , But before e ,vsu e ,extreme e .
What kind of tricks did they resort to in order to learn where to write: they remembered that after the letter b the letter is written in four roots, after V - at fifteen, after d - in three, etc. For better memorization, they came up with stories and poems consisting of words with , for example: , etc.
The letters Izhitsa were very rarely used in pre-revolutionary writing. It was written, and very loosely, only in some Greek words: , , ; practically it has already been excluded from Russian writing. There were two more letters denoting the sound And: And And i . The first of these letters is And – was called “and octal”, and the letter i was called “and decimal.” Where do these names come from? The fact is that a thousand years ago, borrowing the Greek alphabet, our ancestors also borrowed the designation of numbers by letters, characteristic of Greek writing: letter A stood for 1, letter V – 2, G – 3, d –4, etc. (Letter V corresponds to the 2nd letter of the Greek alphabet b"beta", which in the Middle Ages was pronounced like "in"; letter corresponding b , was not in the Greek alphabet, it was “invented” for the Old Church Slavonic language and therefore had no digital meaning.) So, the letter And represented the number 8, i - the number 10 (hence their names), but there were no differences in sound between these two letters. Letter i written before vowels and before th (For example spelling, ,July,biologist,influence, friend, history, hostility, biography, library, neighbor); in all other cases it was necessary to write And ,In addition, the difference And – i was used to differentiate in writing two words that sound the same but mean different concepts, cf.: world meaning "universe" and peace meaning "absence of war". Therefore, the title of L.N. Tolstoy’s novel was written War and Peace, and the poems of V.V. Mayakovsky - War and Peace.
F(fert) and (fita). Both of these letters conveyed the same sound: it was written only in words of Greek origin containing this letter: ,
The commission met on April 12, 1904, chaired by the President of the Academy of Sciences, Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich Romanov. The remarkable Russian linguist Filipp Fedorovich Fortunatov was chosen as his comrade (deputy, as we would say now). The commission included linguists, writers, journalists, teachers of higher, secondary and primary educational institutions– only 50 people. The commission expressed the desirability of simplifying spelling.
Already in May 1904, preliminary messages were published in which, in addition to eliminating unnecessary letters, it was proposed to abandon the hard sign after consonants at the end of words (before the reform they wrote son, husband, reed; counter-admiral), from the distinction between the endings of masculine-neuter and feminine adjectives ( good boys, But kind girls And kind children); from writing at the end of adjectives -ago/-ago(instead of good, third it was suggested to write good third); Some other changes were also proposed. The point of these changes was to free Russian spelling from conventional spellings that are not based on actual pronunciation.
But the commission's work encountered fierce resistance. The reform was supported by teachers and the entire democratic-minded public. But society as a whole was opposed to her. The desire for stability and protection of the familiar is natural for humans. The tradition of writing in culture (and writing is an important component culture) really has a special meaning. Of course, for literate people, the reform meant breaking the existing mechanism of reading and writing, and this inevitably had to be perceived negatively. At the same time, the rejection of any changes in spelling was largely explained by a misunderstanding of the relationship between language and writing, often simply by identifying language and writing: people thought that changes in the spelling of words would damage the language and harm the culture. This is a common misconception.
The onslaught of opponents of the writing reform was so great that linguists F.F. Fortunatov and A.A. Shakhmatov, the leaders of the reform, realizing that after such fierce resistance and persecution the project would not be approved and at the same time not wanting to compromise, t .e. to present the reform in a truncated form, they decided to postpone its discussion for the time being. These were years filled with dramatic events in the life of Russia: the war with Japan, the revolution of 1905, cholera. And yet, the question of simplifying spelling was so relevant that people constantly returned to it.
Only in 1912 the final draft of the Commission was published. At the same time, we had to abandon some previously proposed changes that seemed too revolutionary. For example, a sentence did not pass after all the hissing words, write only O (shol, acorn, black), as well as a proposal to abandon the soft sign where it does not indicate softness (write mouse, face, go). But even in its reduced form, the project caused a new explosion of fierce persecution. And again the case was postponed. On May 17, 1917, the Ministry of Public Education of the Provisional Government issues a circular on the introduction of new spelling (in accordance with the 1912 project) without delay, from the beginning of the new school year. This transition began to take place, but gradually, slowly, overcoming the fierce resistance of the opponents. The reform was carried out only in 1917–1918, and the decrees of the Soviet government adopted not the 1904 project, developed with the participation of F.F. Fortunatov, but a more cautious, stripped-down version, adopted in May 1917.
After the reform.
Further history of Russian writing in the 20th century. is a history of attempts to further improve it. In the 1930s, the development of a universally binding set of rules for Russian spelling became an urgent task. There is inconsistency in the press: each publishing house has its own rules, its own spelling. Here are some examples from the press before the 1956 rules were adopted: on alert And be on the lookout for something like this And like this, in a row And in a row, prehistoric And prehistoric And , tirelessly And tirelessly, the day after tomorrow And the day after tomorrow, damn it And damn, shit And lattice etc. 11 draft codes were prepared before the final version was adopted in 1956 - Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation, which are still in effect today.
However, seven years after its release Rules, in 1963 the Spelling Commission was created, which was again tasked with streamlining Russian spelling. The fact is that in 1956 only partial regulation of Russian spelling was carried out, and there were still a lot of exceptions, difficult to explain and illogical rules in spelling. This commission included prominent linguists, such as V.V. Vinogradov (chairman), R.I. Avanesov, A.A. Reformatsky, S.I. Ozhegov, M.V. Panov, as well as methodologists, psychologists, school teachers, university specialists, writers (for example, K.I. Chukovsky). The commission proceeded from the fact that Russian writing does not need a revolutionary transformation, it is only necessary to rid it of everything contradictory, ambiguous, outdated, which needlessly burdens the memory of the writer. The main goal is to make it easier for students to master spelling.
As in the turn-of-the-century project, instead of an unreasonably difficult writing rule O/e under stress after sibilants (we write silk, But rustle, crap, But clink glasses) a simple and clear rule was proposed: after all hissing words under stress write O , without accent – e : acorn, But acorns, silk, But silky. This is precisely the rule that now applies regarding writing O /e after the letter ts . It was also proposed (as in previous projects) to write mouse, rye, remember, eat, bake, cut your hair, wide open without a soft sign. In all these cases, the soft sign is superfluous - it does not indicate the softness of the preceding consonant. A great relief for the writer (primarily for the student of writing) would be the sequential writing proposed by the commission after ts letters And : circus, gypsy, lisicin, chicks.
But this project was not implemented either, and, as in the early 20th century, the changes were welcomed by Russian language teachers, but society as a whole did not support the project and very emotionally expressed its protest in letters and articles. Someone wrote that he refuses to eat cucumbers written via And , as in its time - at the beginning of the 20th century. - didn’t want to eat bread, written not through yat: it is supposedly not so fragrant and tasty. The reaction of writers was especially sharp - people for whom the graphics of a word, its outline, have an independent aesthetic value.
20th century ended, as it began, with the work of the Spelling Commission, whose task is to consider and approve the draft of a new edition of the set of rules of Russian spelling, prepared at the Institute of Russian Language. V.V.Vinogradova Russian Academy Sci. This time, the authors of the project were tasked with taking into account the changes that had occurred in the language: the rules approved in 1956 were prepared back in the 1930s and, naturally, needed clarification and addition. First of all, it was important to correct the rules of spelling practice that were regularly violated. This situation of non-compliance with the rules has developed, for example, in the hyphenated writing of complex adjectives. Thus, the agenda is not a reform of writing, and certainly not a reform of the language, as opponents of any changes in spelling fear, but only the editing and streamlining of existing rules.
Literature:
Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. On the relationship of Russian writing to the Russian language. St. Petersburg, 1912
Panov M.V. And yet she is good. A story about Russian spelling, its advantages and disadvantages. M., 1964
Review of proposals to improve Russian spelling (XVIII–XX centuries). M., 1965
Kuzmina S.M. Theory of Russian spelling. Spelling in its relation to phonetics and phonology. M., 1981
Panov M.V. Entertaining spelling. M., 1984
Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling. M., 1991
Lesson outline diagram
Item Russian language Class 5
Lesson topic Graphics is a branch of the science of language. Composition of the Russian alphabet.
The purpose of the lesson- create conditions for personal self-realization of each student, promote the development of information, communication, educational, reflective, health-preserving competencies of students.
Tasks
educational
Distinguish between sounds and letters
developing
educational
Cultivate a caring attitude towards the Russian language.
Equipment
multimedia projector,
screen,
Personal Computer,
board,
didactic handouts,
dictionaries.
№ p/p
Stages of work
Contents of the stage
Expert assessment
Organizing time
Teacher Goals
Create a favorable psychological atmosphere in the lesson,
Include all students in work,
Create conditions for motivating students.
Student goals
Get ready for work, get involved in activities,
Make contact, calm down,
Motivate yourself internally for work and personal success.
Methods of activity
Conversation,
Psychophysical exercises.
Forms of organization
Frontal,
Individual
Good afternoon guys. I am glad to welcome you to the lesson. Smile at each other and wish each other good luck. Tune in, calm down.
Let this be a good morning,Let him be the best on earth,Let it be the most carefreeLet it give joy only to you!
Hurry to discoveries and knowledge,Hurry up to start things quickly,And at this moment share a smile -It's easier for everyone to start together!
Updating of reference knowledge
Teacher Goals
Determine the degree of knowledge of students and readiness to learn new material,
Adjust the knowledge of teachers -
xia,
Predict the zone of proximal development for each student.
Student goals
Identify your difficulties and eliminate gaps through the perception of information from the subjects of the process,
Prepare to absorb new knowledge.
Methods
activities
Conversation,
Spelling warm-up
Forms of organization
- frontal,
Steam room,
Individual
Where do most of our lessons begin?
- We often start our lessons with a spelling warm-up and vocabulary dictation.
- Why do you think?
- We can understand only literate writing without difficulty. Properly designed works show respect for the reader.
- Let's not deviate from the rule. Let's get started: please write down the date and type of work in your notebooks.
Pay attention to the board: there are words on the slide in front of you. Formulate a task for your classmates, set goals. What spelling do you need to know?
- Write down the words, inserting the missing letters, taking into account the studied spelling “Paired consonants according to voiced-voicelessness.” Explain your choice by performing an oral check.
Zapa...
Both…
Yu...ka
Varya...ka
Area
Ska...ka
Wardrobe...
Baga...
Moreau...
Ro...y
Youth
Obra…
Soy...
Losha...ka
- Exchange notebooks with a friend, check, and evaluate the work in accordance with the following criteria. (Recording at stand “5” - no errors,
“4” - 1-2 errors,
“3” - 3-4 errors,
“2” - 5 errors or more)
Checking the success of the work. Verbal assessment of students.
- Guys, the poet Bulat Okudzhava wrote in one of his poems:
Everyone writes as he hears.
Everyone can hear him breathing.
As he breathes, so he writes,
not trying to please...
Guys, taking into account the rules of Russian spelling, is it possible to agree with him?
- No. We hear sounds and write letters.
Well done. The design of letters and their relationship with speech sounds is studied by a branch of the science of language called graphics.
Please formulate the topic of our lesson and its goals.
- Graphic arts.
- Know what graphics studies, the designation of sounds in writing and their relationship with letters.
- Write letters correctly.
Graphics are closely related to the alphabet, so I propose this lesson topic “Graphics. Alphabet" and add another goal of the lesson - to know the alphabet and pronounce its letters correctly.
Guys, you have to evaluate your work in class in the following categories, so be careful and diligent.
Write down the topic of the lesson in your notebook.
How did letters and their graphic designation appear? You will learn about this by first working in groups.
Explanation
new material
Teacher Goals
To form students’ abilities to independently construct knowledge,
Formation of abilities for independent generalization, structuring and systematization educational material.
Student goals
To develop the ability to independently construct knowledge,
Expand the conceptual base of the subject,
Adjust the learned methods of action,
To develop the ability to independently generalize, structure and systematize educational material.
Methods of activity
Teacher's story
Message from students
Observation,
Usage problem situations,
Mutual control,
Presentation of work results
Forms of organization
Group,
Individual,
Frontal
Work in groups.
Find out and tell us
1 group
2nd group
3 group
With. 198-199
№ 274
p.200
With. 202
Is pictography used in modern language? Remember some of the signs on the city streets.
(Show crosswalk sign)
It was the Greeks who came up with the designation
for vowels
What is the alphabet?
How many letters are in the Russian alphabet?
How many vowels are there in the alphabet?
How many
consonants?
What are more - letters or sounds in the Russian language?
Look at the old Russian alphabet on p. 201. Read the name of each letter and compare it with the modern one. What is the difference? Which letters have not survived to this day?
What new have you learned?
Sounds were “put into shape” - letters were invented, an alphabet was created. Why is it needed?
- You need to know the alphabet very well, since words in dictionaries, the names of institutions and the names of residents in the telephone directory, and the names of authors in the library catalog are arranged in alphabetical order.
- The names of students in the class journal, friends and acquaintances in the notebook are written in alphabetical order. A good knowledge of the alphabet helps us in searching for information.
How to pronounce the letters of the Russian alphabet? Let's say them all together.
A
A
TO
ka
X
Ha
B
bae
L
ale
C
tse
IN
ve
M
Em
H
what
G
ge
N
en
Sh
sha
D
de
ABOUT
O
SCH
now
E
e
P
pe
b
soft sign
Yo
e
R
er
Y
s
AND
zhe
WITH
es
Kommersant
solid sign
Z
ze
T
te
E
uh
AND
And
U
at
YU
Yu
Y
and short
F
ef
I
I
Physical education break.
Let's try to make a list of your class. To do this, I suggest you get up from your seat, arranging the names in alphabetical order.
Consolidation
new material
Teacher Goals
To develop the ability to independently identify and correct one’s mistakes based on reflection,
To develop in students the ability to independently carry out the control function,
Student goals
To develop the ability to independently exercise control functions,
Adjust the learned methods of action.
Methods of activity
Self-control
Observation,
Reflection,
Practical work,
Test.
Forms of organization
Individual,
Frontal,
Steam room.
№ 1. Let's play?! Let's fill out the table based on the rules of the city game you know. The presenter calls the letters within 10 seconds in accordance with the pronunciation standards. The letter in whose pronunciation an error occurs or the time runs out will become the starting letter for our work.
letter
pronunciation
noun
adjective
verb
№ 2. Arrange in alphabetical order the names of the streets where you and your classmates live. Who wants to work on the board?
Completing the task.
It's time to check the quality of your assimilation of the material. Please take the test suggested to you.
In which line is the alphabetical order of the letters broken?
G D F Z E E
S T U F X C
K L M N O P
CH W
Find the incorrect statement.
Alphabet is the arrangement of letters in a certain order, mandatory for everyone.
There are 36 letters in the Russian alphabet.
Sound recording is one of the expressive means of language.
Graphics studies ways to represent sounds in writing.
Which letter is named incorrectly?
P – pe 2) F – fe 3) Shch – shcha 4) T – te
What word is spelled differently from the pronunciation?
box 2) pasture 3) success 4) do
In which row are the surnames arranged strictly in alphabetical order?
Fedorov, Fetisov, Tsybina, Chebykin
Tsybina, Fetisov, Fedorov, Chebykin
Chebykin, Tsybina, Fetisov, Fedorov
Fetisov, Fedorov, Tsybina, Chebykin
Examination. Analysis of mistakes made.
Job number
1
2
3
4
5
Correct answer
Summing up the lesson. Reflection.
Teacher Goals
To develop in students the ability to independently carry out control functions,
To develop in students the ability to independently identify and correct their mistakes based on reflection.
Student goals
To develop the ability to independently identify and correct one’s mistakes based on reflection,
To develop the ability to independently implement the control function.
Methods of activity
Reflection,
Control.
Forms of organization
Frontal,
Individual.
Let's summarize the lesson.
- Were we able to achieve the goals and objectives we set at the beginning of the lesson?(Compare with what is recorded on the work bench).
- Guys, will you need the knowledge gained in this lesson in your life?
- What is called the alphabet?
- Why is it important to know the alphabet?
- How many vowels are there in the Russian language?
- How many consonants are there in the Russian language?
- What is more in the Russian language – letters or sounds? Prove it.
- How do ъ and ь differ from other letters?
Guys, who do you think is still worthy of appreciation today? Justify your decision.
Homework.
& & 50,51
Who is bigger? Who is more correct?
Write down the names of birds (flowers) in alphabetical order.
or
№ 280 p.202
Draw a letter, monogram, initials (optional).
Reflection "Pedestal".
Guys, I suggest you now evaluate your knowledge of the material in today’s lesson.
Place your smiley face on the step of the pedestal that corresponds to your level of knowledge.
Verbal assessment of overall performance results.
Thank you everyone for your work, goodbye.
Self-analysis of the lesson.
Lesson on the topic " Graphics is a branch of the science of language. Composition of the Russian alphabet" is the first in the “Graphics” section. Spelling".
The students and I were given the following tasks to the children's team:
educational
Expand the cognitive sphere of students through familiarization with terms
To develop information competence through working with text,
To develop communication skills through the organization of group, pair, frontal work,
Distinguish between sounds and letters
Use the alphabet for practical purposes;
developing
Develop logical thinking and memory through testing and diagnostic tasks,
Develop the emotional sphere through an active form of teaching, including ICT,
Develop reflective skills through analysis of results,
Develop students’ speech as an indicator of intellectual and general development the student through the presentation of his own achievements, the results of the groups’ work;
educational
Cultivate a caring attitude towards your native language.
The poem read at the beginning of the lesson put the students in a positive mood to perceive the educational material.
For introduction to the topic was used combined view survey, including both individual and frontal.
The short duration of the organizational moment quickly prepared the class for the perception of the educational material and convinced students of the relevance of the topic of the lesson.
The complexity of the lesson information is commensurate with the age characteristics of fifth-graders and corresponds to the program.
The educational capabilities of the class require a differentiated approach to learning new material.
There are 18 students in the class: 10 boys and 8 girls. Children are trained from the age of six. Families are mostly complete.
4 people have a large memory capacity, 5 have an average one, 9 have a low one. 8 people have a high writing pace, 7 have an average, 3 have a low one.
Visual memory is better developed, so the following visual aids were used in the lesson: a multimedia presentation, textbook illustrations and handouts were used.
20% of students are endowed with artistic abilities. Their development was facilitated by differentiated homework.
Fifth graders are students who have a kinesthetic channel of perception. To better understand new material, they need to do something, tinker, so a game was used that required reliance not only on previously learned knowledge, but also on new ones.
This type of work was also used because students have different brain organizations, and children with left-hemisphere and equal-hemisphere organizations prefer written work.
Considering the characteristics of the class, I chose interactive lesson(according to D. Kolb), including the stages of motivation, consolidation of the experience gained, learning new material, assessment and reflection.
Speaking about the organization of the educational process, I would like to note the following. The classroom and equipment were ready for the lesson. A stimulating introduction /creating an emotional and businesslike mood, attracting the attention of students/ contributed to the children’s independent determination of the topic of the lesson.
The study of new material had several stages, before each of which instructions were given for completing tasks. Each stage had completeness and interconnection with both the previous and the subsequent ones. The lesson was summed up thanks to the rational use of lesson time.
Assessing didactic and methodological activities, we can say that visualization was used when studying new material. This stimulated students' learning activity. Throughout the lesson, the skills to draw conclusions, analyze, and compare developed. The material being studied was constantly being reproduced (visual, auditory, kinesthetic perception was going on). During the lesson, monologue responses from students of varying quality were heard, since the children have different levels of development.
Analyzing the lesson, I would like to emphasize the combination of verbal, visual and practical methods of activity.
The teaching methods and methods of managing activities that I have chosen are subordinated to goals and objectives and correspond to the level of training of students. A variety of learning activities were used: individual, pair, group.
To relieve static tension and eye fatigue, a physical exercise minute and a change of activities were used.
During the summing up, the activities of ___ students and the class as a whole were assessed, and clear instructions were given for implementation homework, which was written down both on the board and in the diaries. The task is differentiated. Will not cause overload.
Reflection showed that the lesson objectives were solved.
I believe that the lesson is a holistic system, its goals have been achieved:
The lesson was emotional and aroused interest in learning;
The pace and rhythm of the lesson were optimal, the actions of the students and teacher were complete;
There was contact between teacher and students;
The atmosphere of goodwill and active creative work dominated;
Various teaching methods and techniques were optimally combined;
A uniform spelling regime was observed;
Every student is ensured active learning.
GRAPHIC WORK
in teaching, visual design by the teacher and students. information: a simplified sketch of the details of the objects being studied, their symbols; drawing up diagrams, graphs, cartograms, nomograms, etc. tables, etc.; graphic-analytical data processing; signaling marks and arrangement of text fragments. The purpose of G. r. teacher - to give students visible support in understanding what is demonstrated and verbally stated, as well as to contribute to the rationalization of their knowledge. activities. The purpose of G. r. students - to activate the teaching. by contributing your own, for example. mnemonic, working methods. G. r. -, in contrast to the strictly standardized teaching. work, according to a drawing program or other technical. disciplines.
The basis of G. r. is conditional, schematic. graphics, which convey the principle of the structure or functioning of the object under study and are focused on conveying relationships between facts, phenomena, objects, revealing spatio-temporal connections, cause-and-effect, functional dependencies, etc. The possibilities are schematic. graphics have determined its widespread use in various areas of human activity, primarily in the sphere of natural sciences. Sci.
The combination in a schematic the graphics of two principles - abstract-logical and visual-figurative - determined its use in teaching. process. Uch. material, including non-graphic material (fragments of text, numbers, etc.), but graphically organized, orderly placed on a visible plane, is perceived as a whole and its parts and in their interrelations. Using G.R., the teacher introduces the audience not only to a certain amount of information, but also to the way of organizing and systematizing it. Monitoring the implementation of G. r. students, the teacher can timely assess the effectiveness of the organization of their studies. activities, the degree of clarity and intelligibility of their explanations.
G. r. promotes more durable preservation of “reference traces” in visual memory (V.F. Shatalov) - from the color and shape of the graphic. elements, their location, direction, size, etc., - laying auxiliary. basis for reproducing what has been learned. G. r. in the learning process, it not only helps to solve problems of visual display, but also promotes rational organization, systematization of knowledge, instills in students a harmonious design of the material, and prepares them for independence. intellectual work. Sometimes G. r. allows you to detect an error made during measurement, calculation, etc., not noticed during conventional digital recording.
Character of G. r. varies depending on the subject. For precision and technical sciences are characterized by the construction of graphs reflecting functional connections and dependencies: when teaching physics G. r. illustrates the principles of design of devices and machines; in chemistry lessons reflects the transition of quantities and changes into qualitative ones. Introduction to graphic the expression of functions and structural relationships, given in physics, mathematics, and drawing lessons, can be reinforced in other classes. In the subjects of the humanitarian cycle, synchronicities are compiled. tables, cartograms and diagrams that help students develop the ability to consider social phenomena in their development and interdependence.
When performing G. r. it is necessary to take into account that all elements are schematic. graphics (shape, color, size, location, etc.) carry a certain semantic load and due to various reasons may be interpreted differently by students. Therefore, in order to avoid distortion of the teaching. information when choosing cements schematically. graphics, you should strive to ensure that they correspond, if possible, to the characteristics characteristic features graphically designated objects.
G. r. implies obligation. combination with other teaching aids and method. techniques.
Russian pedagogical encyclopedia. - M: “Great Russian Encyclopedia”. Ed. V. G. Panova. 1993 .
See what “GRAPHIC WORK” is in other dictionaries:
Graphic work (in training)- visual presentation of educational information by the teacher and students; simplified sketch of the details of the objects being studied, their symbolic designation; drawing up diagrams, graphs, cartograms, etc.; graphic-analytical data processing. (Bim Bad B.M... Pedagogical terminological dictionary
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Graphics is an applied field of knowledge about language, which establishes the composition of the styles used in writing and the sound meanings of letters.
Alphabet - full list letters arranged in a generally accepted order. (33 letters; each has two varieties - uppercase and lowercase).
The SRLYa alphabet is based on the Old Church Slavonic alphabet, which did not correspond to the sound system of that time (yus large and yus small - letters denoting sounds which were not in the Russian language).
Features of Russian graphics.
A) There are fewer letters of the alphabet than sounds in living speech - the letters have multiple meanings.
Letter S: [s] - courts, garden, [s"] - here, sit down, [z] - delivery, collection, [z"] - mowing, done, [w] - sew [zh] - compress
b) dividing letters according to the number of sounds indicated. letters devoid of sound meaning: ъ and ь, unpronounceable consonants (sun, heart); letters denoting two sounds: i, e, e, yu; letters denoting one sound, i.e. other.
C) the presence of single-digit and double-digit letters in the graphics.
unambiguous - ch and c in all positions denote the same sound [ch"], [ts].
two-digit - all consonants, paired according to hardness and softness; vowels i, e, e, yu.
Ambiguity is associated with the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is: in certain cases, the syllable acts as a unit of writing as an integral graphic element, the parts of which are mutually determined.
Cases of changes in the syllabic principle.
1. to denote paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness. The letter t can express both a hard sound (will become) and a soft sound (will tighten). The absence of separate letters for sounds paired in hardness and softness is compensated by the presence of a double outline of vowels. So, a, o, y, e, s - indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant, and i, e, yu, e, i - indicate softness (rad - row, was - beat, say - chalk, knock - bale). Only at the end of a word and before consonants (but not always) the softness of consonants is conveyed by the letter ь.
2. to indicate the consonant sound [j] inside words and if the syllable ends with [j] after the vowel, й is used (sing, in the spring).
But: -at the beginning of the word (pit, hedgehog)
After vowels (my, I'll go)
After ъ, ь (volume, let's knock down)
Deviation from the syllabic principle:
1. after always hard w, sh, c, vowel sounds are indicated i, e, e, yu, i (fat, pole, number, jury).
2. after always soft h, sh - a, o, u (thicket, miracle, pike).
4. writing complex abbreviated words with ьо, я, ьу, yu (village district, construction site, Dalugol).
5. yo instead of ё at the beginning of foreign words (New York, yod).
6. absence of a letter to indicate the sound [zh "] (yeast).
Absence of a stressed syllable in a word.
Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections: 1) transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters; 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings of words and their parts; 3) use of uppercase and lowercase letters; 4) word transfer; 5) graphic abbreviations of words.
1) spelling is a spelling, chosen or still sought, in the case where the writer is given a choice of letters to indicate a particular sound;
2) spelling is a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible ones with the same pronunciation and corresponds to the spelling rule.
The principle of testing is as follows: the sound of a weak position is checked by a strong position (see phonemic analysis); Having established the phoneme that is realized in a given sound, it is designated by the corresponding letter. The same letter denotes a phoneme in strong and weak positions within the same morpheme. This is the essence of the basic principle of Russian orthography. This principle applies in cases where weak position phonemes can be unambiguously verified by a strong position in the same morpheme. This principle is called differently in educational literature: morphological (morphematic), phonemic or morphonematic. The name morphological focuses on the dependence of spellings on the morphological characteristics of the word, i.e. to uniform spelling of morphemes. The name phonemic establishes the relationship between letters and phonemes. The term morphonematic seems to be the most successful, because it synthesizes the correlation of a letter with a phoneme within a morpheme. Basic (morphonematic) principle orthography ensures uniform spelling of the same morpheme in forms of the same word and in different words. Spelling the same morphemes the same way makes it easy to recognize words with those morphemes, which promotes quick comprehension and reading.
The morphonematic principle of Russian orthography determines the writing of most spelling letters, therefore this is the basic principle of conveying the phonemic composition of a word by letters (see the first section of spelling).
Not all spelling rules obey the morphonematic principle. In some cases, checking a weak position is impossible, because in this morpheme the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: mO loko, kA cast, inTo hall, rede , sidchAnd vy, etc. In this case, the hyperphoneme appears: m/o\a/loko, k/a\o/litka, vo/k\g/zal, etc. The morphonematic principle of spelling here limits the choice of letters, but does not provide an unambiguous solution, because the choice of letter is not motivated by modern linguistic patterns. Writing in such cases is based on two principles: morphonematic and traditional (historical).
Traditional principle Russian orthography is that the spelling used is fixed by tradition (history). In school practice, words with a hyperphoneme at the root are called vocabulary words and are given lists for memorization. The traditional principle of spelling comes into play not only in cases where a phoneme cannot be placed in a strong position, but also when there is an alternation of phonemes in the strong position of the same morpheme, for example: hA roar - sO ri, poklO n – clA bother; letter selection A (hA rya) or O (poklO thread) in an unstressed position is determined by tradition. Thus, traditional (historical) spellings reproduce the graphic appearance of a word or morpheme that developed in the past. Moreover, in modern Russian writing, traditionally established spellings of any morphemes are uniformly reproduced in all related words or in similar morphemes of other words, which does not contradict the morphonematic principle. For example: milk O,milk ny,milk face,milk carriage, etc.; usidchiv oh, insultchiv oh, changechiv y and others; reds , moreno , handsomes and etc.
Traditional (historical) writings can be divided into two categories - actually traditional (historical) and differentiating. The traditional spellings include the following:
letters denoting hyperphonemes: GO roh, kA TA stanza, spaceO onV etc.;
o–e at the root after the sibilants: wO roh, she sweat, he rn, hO porno, etc.;
s – and after c: tsAnd rk, cAnd cowardly, tss gan, tss films, etc.;
spelling of unstressed vowels in the roots zar/zor, ros/rast, gor/gar, kos/kas, skoch/skak, lag/lozh, mok/mak, style/steel, dir/der, mir/mer, bir/ber, pir /per, blist/brist, clone/clan, etc.: zarO sli/zarA become, toO dream aboutA get up, get upO read/searchA Kat, etc.;
o – and in suffixes of adverbs like: leftA – leftO , dryA - dryO and so on.;
nn in the suffixes of adjectives –enn-, -onn- and n in the suffixes –an-, -yan-, -in-, as well as exceptions to this rule: kinshipenne oh, stationhe N oh, winden y, etc.;
nn in suffixes of participles in full form and n in short form: checknn oh, check it outn a, etc.;
endings -ого/-и in the forms of the genitive and accusative cases of adjectives and pronouns and in the word Today: greatWow , synhis , mohis and so on.;
ь for verbs after sibilants in different forms: liveb , cutb and so on.;
ь in adverbs, particles for hissing: supineb , completelyb , onlyb , bishb and so on. and some other spellings.
Differentiating traditional (historical) writings perform the function of distinguishing words or their grammatical forms. These include cases:
e – and in verb suffixes: exhaustede t (lose strength) – exhaustedAnd t (to deprive someone else of strength), etc.;
particles are not – nor: Where is she going?Not applied! Where is she going?neither she contacted her, no one helped her.
prefixes with-/pre- in homophones: at to be (to come) –pre to be (to be)at emnik –pre emnik, etc.;
double and single consonants in homophones: bal – ball , sum a – summ a, etc.;
5) lowercase and capital letters for proper and common nouns: n clothes -N clothes,O rel –ABOUT rel, etc.;
6) n in the short form of passive participles and nn in the short form of adjectives : She brought upn and by the father. She is smart and well-mannerednn A.
7) ь after sibilants in nouns of 3 declension and its absence in nouns of 2 declension : ryeb , daughterb , knife, etc. and some other spellings.
In contradiction with the morphonematic principle of orthography is also phonetic principle, which lies in the fact that the letter does not denote a phoneme, but a sound, i.e. we write what we hear. Such spellings include the following: o - and in the prefixes race-/ros-, raz-/ros-: RA write off - pO list, rA play - pO gambling, etc.; with at the end of the attachments: rah beat - raWith drink, andh cut - andWith bite, etc.; o - e after sibilants and c in the endings of nouns and adjectives, as well as in suffixes of nouns, adjectives and adverbs: cloakO m – cloudse y, bigO th - goode th, merchantO m – chintze m, bitchO k – handkerchiefe k, brocadeO vyy – calicoe hot, hotO - brilliante etc.; and - ы in the root of the word after consonant prefixes: And play - withs play,And roll - rosess sk, etc.; and in the endings of the dative and prepositional cases of nouns of 1st declension in -i and the prepositional case of nouns of 2nd declension in -i, -iy: (dedicated to) armyAnd , on an excursionAnd , in the workAnd , about the sanatoriumAnd and so on.; s after c: lads , kutss th, Sinitss n, etc.. and some other spellings.
Modern Russian graphics in this regard are one of the most advanced, since most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are unique. Based on the alphabetical meaning of the letter and letter-sound correspondence, there are quite a few spellings: house, world, table, tourist, empty, joking, in hand, etc.
However, the Russian graphics system has a number of deviations from the letter-sound principle. Depending on the alphabetical meaning, the letters of modern Russian writing can be grouped as follows:
letters for vowel sounds: A, O, U, E, Y, I;
letters denoting the combination of a vowel sound with the preceding [j]: E, Yo, Yu, Ya;
letters for hard paired consonants: B, V, G, D, Z, K, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, F, X;
letters for unpaired hard consonants: Ж, Ш, Ц;
letters for unpaired soft consonants: CH, Ш;
letter for [j]: И;
letter to indicate softness of consonants: b;
letter without alphabetical meaning: Ъ.
Thus, all letters of the Russian alphabet in their alphabetical meanings reflect strong variants of Russian phonemes. The exceptions are the letter Y, which denotes a weak version of the phoneme, and the letters b and b, which do not denote sounds. In the Russian alphabet there are no special letters for sounds of weak positions; spelling deals with their designation. This is an objective gap in the Russian alphabet, formed historically. There are no special letters in the alphabet to designate paired soft consonants. This is the second objective gap of the Russian alphabet. For each vowel phoneme in the Russian alphabet there are two letters:<а>- A and I,<о >- O and Yo,<э>– E and E,<у>- U and Yu,<и>- Y and I.
So, the Russian alphabet is characterized by insufficiency in the area of letters for consonants and redundancy in the area of letters for vowels. Objective gaps in the alphabet are compensated for by graphics. Since graphics determine the relationship between the designated sound/sound segment and the letter used, it establishes the rules for using the letter, its meaning, and prescribes writing and reading letters in a certain way in one position or another. In Russian graphics, the unit of writing and reading is not a single letter, but a combination of letters. For example, the letter P will be read as a hard or soft consonant depending on which letter is used after it: [p] - ra, ro, ru, ry, re or [p'] - rya, ryo, ryu, ri, re, r.
In native Russian words the phoneme
1) at the beginning of a word, before a vowel and between vowels< j>together with vowel phonemes< а>, < у>, < э>, < о>indicated by letters i, yu, e, yo;
2) after a consonant before a vowel phoneme< j>indicated by letters i, yu, e, yo, and using b And ъ:blizzard, flaw and so on.;
3) after a vowel and before a consonant and at the end of a word< j>denoted by the letter th. In borrowed words th stands for< j>and before a vowel phoneme: iodine;
after a consonant a combination of phonemes< jo>transmitted in letters yo: medallion
After a vowel before< и>phoneme< j>The letter does not indicate: lose.
Graphics is a branch of the science of writing that defines 1) an inventory of graphic means of language (alphabetic and non-alphabetic signs; 2) a system of correspondence between a graphic means (denoting) and a unit of sound (denoted by sound or phoneme). The main graphic tool is a system of letters.
A set of letters arranged in a prescribed order is called an alphabet, or alphabet. The first, the Cyrillic alphabet, created at the end of the 9th century, contained 43 letters. The modern Russian alphabet has 33 letters: 10 vowels, 21 consonants, Kommersant And b. The main trend in the history of Russian graphics is thus obvious: the history of Russian graphics is called the history of the struggle against unnecessary letters. Significant and purposeful transformations of Russian writing are associated with the era of Peter I, although even before that, letters that had completely lost their sound correspondences in the Russian language - the so-called “yus” - were abolished. The alphabet, created with the direct participation of Peter I, was called the civil seal or citizen. By the decision of Peter I the alphabet was reduced by 3 letters, the letters were introduced E, I, U, the reforms of Peter I seemed to open up the very possibility of changing and improving writing, and after him the work of simplifying the alphabet was continued. A great contribution to the history of Russian graphics was made by famous masters of words - N.M. Karamzin, M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky and other writers, “academic” scientists - linguists: F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A.I. Sobolevsky, L.V. Shcherba. Baudouin de Courtenay (the creator of the doctrine of the phoneme) also formulated the main provisions related to the theory of writing. It was he who introduced the concepts of alphabet, graphics and spelling into linguistics. Regarding the current state of learning the alphabet, it should be noted that in the Russian language there are still letters, the necessity of which can be debated. In particular, this ъ .
In the modern Russian alphabet, each letter has 2 options: printed and handwritten, and 2 options for letter names - individual and complex. Individual names of vowel letters are of 2 types: 1) letter names a, and, o, y, s, e consist of one vowel sound; 2) letter names e, e, yu, i consist of a vowel sound and a consonant preceding it [ j]. Types of consonant letter names: 1 – for letters b (be), c, d, d, g, h, p, t, c and h; 2 – letter names l (el), m (em), n, r, s, f(softness [ l] in the name the letter l is explained by the fact that in the Latin alphabet, from which the name is borrowed, it corresponds to “semi-soft” [ l]); 3 – letters k (ka), x, w, sch. Letter Y from the second half of the 19th century V. It's called "And Brief". Letters Kommersant And b in scientific literature, in accordance with tradition, they are called “er” and “er”. In school textbooks - “firm sign” (the name arose when Kommersant written at the end of a word after a hard consonant house, table The name "soft sign" corresponds to one of the functions b indicate the softness of the preceding consonant.
Complex names represent letter classes.
The unit of graphics is called grapheme(term by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay). A grapheme often coincides with what is commonly called a letter. A grapheme often coincides with what is commonly called a letter; however, for example, lowercase and uppercase styles, which are considered one letter, should be considered as different graphemes, since there are certain rules for the use of lowercase and capital letters, and violation of these rules is considered an error. Therefore, from a spelling point of view, these letters are not equivalent and are not interchangeable.
Different graphemes that convey the same sound are called homophonic(for example, the same lowercase and uppercase letters.
Any grapheme represents a class allographs. Allographs are different styles of the same letter that are not regulated by spelling and, therefore, interchangeable in any case: for example, “T” in different fonts and handwritings. Graphic units can be simple or complex. Complex graphic units are called graphic complexes(For example, sch in him. language). Graphic complexes are not included in the alphabet, but are usually listed in dictionaries in the “Reading Rules” section.
The number of letters in the alphabet and the number of graphemes in a language usually diverge. A grapheme, like a phoneme, is an abstraction. The phoneme is realized in a number of allographs, as well as
phoneme in a number of allophones. But there is no true correspondence between graphic and phonological systems. A phoneme is a special kind of sign in which there is a plane of expression, but no plane of content. The grapheme has both a plan of expression in the form of a graphic sign and a plan of content; the plane of its content is the phoneme it denotes.
In the graphic system of the Russian language, 39 phonemes (according to R.I. Avanesov) correspond to 33 letters. To this we can add
3 grapheme complexes LJ, zzh, zhd (reins, ride, rain - in the senior spelling norm Thus, the number of letters in the modern Russian alphabet is less than the number of phonemes in the language.
Basic principles of Russian graphics: phonemic and positional.The phonemic principle is related to what the letters represent / the letters of the Russian alphabet do not represent sounds, but phonemes/ ,positional is related to how phonemes are designated in writing. The positional principle of graphics is that the phonemic correspondence to a letter can only be established taking into account its position - neighboring letters and other graphic signs. The positional principle of graphics is associated with two of its features: the designation of phonemes in writing<j > and the designation of hardness - softness of consonant phonemes. Phoneme<j > denoted by four different ways, for pairs by attribute hardness - softness There are 2 designations for consonants: 1) use of the letter b after the letter of a consonant (this method is used in 2 positions - at the end of a word and before hard consonants); 2) writing subsequent letters i, yu, e, e, and. However, it should be taken into account that in the Russian writing system there are “graphically incorrect” spellings.