Preparing for the Unified State Exam: Phonetics. Graphic arts. Orthoepy

1. Which of the encrypted words does not indicate a branch of linguistics?

a) NEKAFIOT
b) GRYAORPHIFOA
c) TANOKEFO
d) FRIOEPOA

2. Which word fits the phonetic description: sonorant hard consonant; unstressed vowel; voiced hard consonant; stressed vowel; sonorant hard consonant; unstressed vowel; voiceless consonant?

a) child
b) reward
c) ruler
d) plane

3. Which answer option contains an extra letter?

a) sonorous: l, r, n, th, m
b) always hard: w, w, c, h
c) always soft: h, sch, th

4. In which word are all consonants hard?

a) parachute
b) acorn
c) heron
d) conscience

5. In which word are all consonants soft?

a) ant
b) lemon
c) flattery
d) kettle

6. In which word are all consonants voiced?

what about work
b) Lezginka
c) collection
d) oak

7. In which word are all consonants unvoiced?

a) building
b) mitten
c) point
d) chest of drawers

8. In which answer option do all pairs of words have the same sound?

a) pillar - pillar, fairy tale - pointer, horn - rock
b) ear - hair, sleep - nose, economy - save
c) inert - bone, defect - threshold, open - boil

9. Which word has a mistake in stress?

a) religion
b) spoiled
c) provision

10. What word was pronounced wrong?

a) o[d]yank
b) eggs
c) zvenigoro[ts]ky
d) lifeless

11. Which word has a consonant before e pronounced softly?

a) alternative
b) neckline
c) stalls
d) debut

Russian language

PHONETICS. GRAPHIC ARTS

7. Consonants

The concept of consonants.

Consonant sounds consist of noise or voice and noise. When they form, exhaled air encounters various obstacles when passing through the vocal tract. The air stream overcomes them, resulting in noise. There are a total of 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language:

[ b ], [ b’], [ V ], [ V'], [ G ], [ G'], [ d ], [ d'], [ and ], [ h ], [ z'], [ th'], [ To ], [ To'], [ l ], [ l’], [ m ], [ m'], [ n ], [ n’], [ P ], [ P'], [ R ], [ R'], [ With ], [ With'], [ T ], [ T'], [ f ], [ f'], [ X ], [ X'], [ ts ], [ h'], [ w ], [ sch'].

Hard and soft consonants.

softness/hardness.

Most hard and soft consonants form pairs:
[ b-b', v-c', g-g', d-d', z-z', k-k', l-l', mm', n-n', p-p' , r-r', s-s', t-t', f-f', x-x'].

Hard consonants do not have paired sounds: [zh], [w], [ts]
and soft consonants: [ch’], [sch’], [th’].

Voiceless and voiced consonants.

Consonant sounds vary according to sonority/deafness.

Voiceless consonants consist entirely of noise. This series includes the following consonants: [p], [p'], [f], [f'], [k], [k'], [t], [t'], [sh], [s ], [ s'], [ x ], [ x' ], [ ts ], [ h'], [ w'].

The voice is involved in the formation of voiced consonant sounds; they consist of noise and voice. These include the following sounds: [b], [b'], [v], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [z], [z], [z'], [th'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'].

Most voiced and voiceless consonants form pairs:
[b-p, b'-p', v-f, v'-f', g-k, g'-k', d-t, d'-t', w-sh, z-s, z '-With'].

Voiceless consonants do not have paired sounds: [x], [x’], [ts], [ch’], [sch’]
and voiced consonants: [th’], [l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [r], [r’].

Sonorous sounds.

Sonorous are the sounds [l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [r], [r’]. They are always loud and are not deafened under any circumstances.

Spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants in the root.

To check the spelling of paired voiced and voiceless consonants at the root of a word before the consonants, it is necessary to change the word or select a word with the same root so that after the consonant there is a vowel sound or one of the sonorants l, m, n, r , For example: du b- du b s, about With ba - about With neither h cue - no h small.

Spelling unpronounceable consonants.

To check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants, it is necessary to change the form of the word or select a cognate word in which these consonants are pronounced clearly, for example: with l ntse - with l nyshko, swish T chut - swiss T eat.

Designation of soft consonants in writing.

The softness of consonant sounds in writing is indicated in different ways:

1) with help b at the end of a word, for example: shelter b, corner b, sol b, checkmate b, pole b;

2) with help b in the middle of a word after a soft consonant before another (hard or soft) consonant, for example: nyan b ka, kos b ba, vos b my, tes b ma, con b ki;

3) with help b the softness of the consonant in the middle of a word after the letter is always indicated l , For example: chalk b com, fell b That. However, the double combination ll written without b : A ll her, couple ll spruce ;

4) using letters e, e, yu, i in cases where they are used after a consonant, for example: p e l [p’el], n e s [n’os], l Yu k [l’uk], m I l [m'al].

Exception:
A) in letter combinations h, sch with other consonants b it is not written to indicate softness, for example: mo schn oh, hee schn th ;
b)b is not written to indicate the softness of consonants in some words, the spelling of which must be consulted in a spelling dictionary, for example: ne ns iya, mo st ik, gwo building And .

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A syllable is divided into even smaller units - sounds, which are the smallest units of sounding speech pronounced in one articulation.

Speech sounds are created by air vibrations and the functioning of the speech apparatus. Therefore, they can be considered as physiological phenomena, since they arise as a result of human articulatory activity, and physical (acoustic), i.e. perceivable by ear. However, when characterizing speech sounds, we cannot limit ourselves to these two aspects; Linguistics studies sounds as special units of language that perform a social function, i.e. function of communication between people. For linguistics, it is important to find out to what extent sounds are associated with distinguishing the meaning of words and their forms, whether all sounds are equally important for language as a means of communication. Therefore in late XIX- early 20th century Linguists began to study precisely the functional side of sounds, as a result of which a new branch of linguistics appeared - phonology.

Sound composition of the Russian language

All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

Vowels and consonants differ in acoustic and articulatory characteristics: 1) vowels are tonal sounds, consonants are formed with the participation of noise; 2) vowels are sounds that are formed without the participation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, all consonants are formed with the help of an obstacle (closed lips - [b], [p], the gap between the tongue and the hard palate - [x], etc. ); 3) vowels are not differentiated by the method and place of formation; for consonants, the place and method of formation are very significant grounds for their classification; 4) when forming vowels, the speech organs are tense evenly, when forming consonants, the speech organs are most tense in the place where there is an obstacle; 5) the air stream is weak when pronouncing vowels, but strong when pronouncing consonants, since it needs to overcome the obstacle existing in its path; 6) all vowel sounds can be syllabic-forming, consonants (except sonorants) cannot independently form a syllable.

In this opposition of vowels and consonants of speech sounds, an intermediate position is occupied by sonorant consonants, which in part are similar to consonants (formation with the help of an obstruction, differentiation by method and place of formation, presence of noise), and in part - with vowels (predominance of tone, ability to form a syllable) .

There are six vowel sounds (phonemes) in the Russian language: [i], [s], [u], [e], [o], [a]. Their classification is based on articulatory features: the degree of tongue elevation, row, and participation of the lips.

There are 37 consonant sounds (phonemes) in the modern Russian language. Their formation and classification are much more complicated than vowels.

Intonation

Each phrase is intonationally designed.

Intonation- this is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects and manifested in successive changes in pitch (melody - raising or lowering the tone), speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and slowdown in the flow of speech), sound strength (intensity of speech), intraphrase pauses (which is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase) and the overall timbre of the utterance, which, depending on the target setting, can be “cheerful”, “playful”, “frightened”, “gloomy”, etc. Intonation performs important functions: it not only shapes phrases, sentences and various syntactic constructions, but also participates in the expression of thoughts, feelings and will of people. In fact, the same segment of sounding speech, depending on how and with what intonation it is pronounced, can have different meanings: He has come. - He came! - He came? The intonation of narrative speech is characterized by an increase in tone at the beginning of a phrase and a decrease in tone at the end of the phrase, at the indentation; a question phrase is characterized by sharp increase indented; The intonation of the exclamation phrase is evenly high.

It is difficult to convey intonation differences in writing. Apart from the period, colon, dash, comma, parentheses, exclamation marks, question marks and ellipses, we have no means of conveying the nature of intonation in writing. And even with the help of these signs it is not always possible to reflect the intonation pattern of a phrase. For example:

Who doesn't know that he was the first to express this idea? - at the end of the sentence it is question mark, however, the phrase has an affirmative rather than interrogative meaning.

Intonation also performs another important function - with its help, a sentence is divided into semantic-syntactic units - syntagms.

Variety of sounds and their differences

Each language has quite a lot of sounds. Moreover, in different languages their number varies, as does the relationship between vowels and consonants.

Each sound has its own acoustic characteristics, characteristics to which modern phonologists are paying increasing attention, since they believe that acoustic classification is a truly linguistic classification that deals with finding out what sound is, while articulatory classification of sounds (the most common) is aimed at figuring out how sound is produced.

Sounds differ from one another in pitch, length, strength and timbre. Therefore, any two sounds that have different pitch, strength and timbre are acoustically different. In addition, there are differences between sounds explained by subjective and objective aspects. 1. Individual differences between sounds are associated with the pronunciation characteristics of individual people. Each person pronounces sounds differently to some extent. For linguistics, the only important differences between sounds are those that change the meaning of words. If two people (for example, a schoolboy and a professor) said the word student, then we notice that this word was pronounced differently by them, but at the same time we affirm that they pronounced the same word. But if the same person utters two words, for example, garden and court, then we will recognize without the slightest difficulty that these are different words, since they have two different sounds [a, y], which distinguish their sound appearance and indicate differences in meaning.

Thus, individual differences in the production of the same sound are not linguistically important. Conversely, different sounds are linguistically important as units of a language system, regardless of the different pronunciations of them by individual people.

2. When we say the word city[gor't], in a stressed syllable, in place of the sound [o], a very unclear sound sounds, as it happens reduction(from the Latin reducere - return, bring back) - weakening of sound under the influence of the phonetic conditions in which the sound finds itself(unstressed position). Here the sound [o] not only loses part of its sonority, but also loses quality - it turns into the sound [ъ]. In the same word, the final sound [d] is deafened, pronounced as [t] - this is a characteristic law of the modern Russian language (voiced consonants at the end of the word are deafened). Stunned or make false calls Consonants can also occur in the middle of a word under the influence of a subsequent voiceless or voiced consonant: oak - oak [dupka], ask - request [prose "ba]. These phenomena indicate that in certain phonetic conditions (voiced before a voiceless, voiceless before a voiced, voiced at the end of a word, a vowel in an unstressed position, etc.) the influence of one sound on another and their changes or other sound processes is possible. Such differences between sounds are usually called phonetically determined. They also have no linguistically important meaning, since the word and its meaning do not change.

3. In words WHO And university after the consonant [v] we pronounce different sounds. These sounds in these words serve distinguishers their meaning. The difference in sounds is not positionally determined, since both appear in the same position (stressed - strong for vowel sounds), there is also no influence of neighboring sounds. Differences between sounds that are not due to individual characteristics of pronunciation, or the position of the sound, or the influence of one sound on another are called functional. The functional differences between sounds are linguistically important.

Consequently, two sounds, the difference between which is not due to the position or influence of neighboring sounds, but is associated with a change in the meaning of the word, are functionally different.

onetic transcription

To record spoken speech, a special system of signs is used - phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcription is based on the principle of a one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.

The transcribed sound (word, sentence, text) is usually enclosed in square brackets: [we] we. Recording of spoken speech is carried out without capital letters and punctuation marks, but with pauses.

In words consisting of more than one syllable, the place of stress should be indicated: [z’imá] winter. If two words (for example, a preposition and a noun) are characterized by a single stress and are pronounced together, then they are connected by a league: [in_house].
Russian phonetic transcription mainly uses letters of the Russian alphabet. Consonant sounds are written using all the corresponding letters, except ь and й. Special superscript or subscript symbols can be placed next to the letter. They indicate some features of the sound:

[n’] - soft consonant ([n’] palate);

[n:] - long consonant (bath); may be indicated by a superscript or [n:].

The letter u in most cases corresponds to the sound, which is conveyed by the sign [sh’:]: u[sh’:]élie, [sh’:]setina. A voiced parallel to [w’:] will be the sound [zh’:], appearing, for example, in the word dró[zh’:]and yeast (another pronunciation is allowed - dró[zh:]i).

The Latin letter [j] denotes the consonant “yot” in transcription, which sounds in the words block apple, water reservoir, vor[b'ji´] sparrows, language language, sará[j] barn, má[j]ka T-shirt, há[ j]nick kettle, etc. Please note that the consonant “yot” is not always represented in writing by the letter y.

Vowel sounds are recorded using various types of signs.

Stressed vowels are transcribed using six symbols: [i] - [p'ir] pir, [y] - [ardor] ardor, [u] - [ray] ray, [e] - [l'es] forest, [o ] - [house] house, [a] - [garden] garden.
Unstressed vowels undergo various changes depending on their place in relation to stress, the proximity of hard or soft consonants, and the type of syllable. To write unstressed vowels, the symbols [у], [и], [ы], [а], [ъ], [ь] are used.

Unstressed [y] occurs in any syllable. In its quality, it is similar to the corresponding stressed vowel: musical, r[u]ka, vod[u], [u]dar.
Unstressed vowels [i], [s], [a] are pronounced in the syllable that immediately precedes the stressed one (such a syllable is called the first pre-stressed one): [r'i]dov rows, mod[a]lér fashion designer, d[a]ská board . These same vowels, with the exception of [s], also appear at the absolute beginning of the word: [and] excursionist excursionist, [a]byská search.
Unstressed [i], [s], [a] are similar in quality to the corresponding stressed sounds, but not identical to them. Thus, unstressed [i] turns out to be a vowel, intermediate between [i] and [e], but closer to [i]: [l’i]sá fox - cf.: [l’i´]sam foxes. The pronunciation of other vowels is also different. The use of symbols [and], [s], [a] to denote unstressed sounds is associated with a certain degree of convention.

So, the unstressed vowels listed above are characteristic of the positions of the 1st pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word. In other cases, the sounds [ъ] and [ь] are pronounced.

The sign [ъ] (“er”) conveys a very short sound, its quality intermediate between [ы] and [а]. The vowel [ъ] is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech. It is pronounced, for example, in the 2nd pre-stressed syllables and in post-stressed syllables after hard syllables: p[a]rohod steamer, v[a]doz water carrier, zad[a]l set, gór[a]d city.

In similar positions, after soft consonants, a sound is recorded that is reminiscent of [and], but shorter. This vowel is conveyed by the sign [ь] (“er”): [m’j]rovoy world, [m’j]lovoy chalk, zá[m’r] froze, zá[l’j]zhi deposits.

Speech organs. Formation of vowels and consonants

Sounds are made during exhalation. The flow of exhaled air is a necessary condition formation of sounds.

The stream of air leaving the trachea must pass through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. If the ligaments are tense and close together, then the exhaled air will cause them to vibrate, resulting in a voice, that is, a musical sound, tone. Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants.

The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming an obstacle created in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the speech organs to the boundaries of the gap ([f], [v], [z], [w]) or the full stop ([p], [m], [d], [k]).

Various organs may be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [v]), certain parts of the tongue with the hard and soft palate ([z], [d] ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in creating the barrier are divided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter make certain movements.

The air stream overcomes the gap or bridge, resulting in a specific noise. The latter is a mandatory component of the consonant sound. In voiced people, noise is combined with tone; in deaf people, it is the only component of sound.

When pronouncing vowels, the vocal cords vibrate, and the air stream is provided with a free, unobstructed passage through the oral cavity. Therefore, a vowel sound is characterized by the presence of tone and the complete absence of noise. The specific sound of each vowel (what distinguishes [i] from [s], etc.) depends on the position of the tongue and lips.

The movements of the pronunciation organs during the formation of sounds are called articulation, and the corresponding characteristics of sounds are called articulatory characteristics.

sweet sounds
Stressed vowels: classification features
The classification of vowel sounds is based on signs that describe the work of the speech organs: 1) movement of the tongue forward - backward (row);
2) movement of the tongue up and down (lifting);
3) position of the lips (labialization).

Based on their series, vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating front vowels ([i], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the mouth. When articulating back vowels ([у], [о]) - in the back. Middle vowels ([ы], [а]) occupy an intermediate position.
The rising sign describes the position of the tongue when moving up or down. High vowels ([и], [ы], [у]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the low vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. Middle vowels ([e], [o]) are given a place between the named extreme groups.
The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized (or rounded), because when pronouncing them, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The remaining vowels are pronounced with neutral lips and are non-labialized: [i], [s], [e], [a].

The table of stressed vowel vowels is as follows:

climb:
upper i´ ы´ ý (labial)
middle e´ ó (labial)
lower b

Unstressed vowels: classification features
In unstressed syllables, sounds different from those under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the speech organs. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in the Russian language are reduced.
Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed ones (cf.: s[a]dy´ gardens´ - s[á]dik sadik, p[i]lá pila - p[i´]lit pulit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.
On the other hand, not only the duration changes, but also the very quality of the vowels. In this regard, they talk about a qualitative reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. In the pair s[a]dovod sadod - s[á]dik sadik unstressed [ъ] is not just shorter - it differs from the stressed [á].
Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and at the same time high-quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed words, the language does not reach extreme points of advancement and tends to take a more neutral position.

The most “convenient” thing in this regard is sound [ъ]. This is a vowel of the middle row, middle rise, non-labialized: s[b]smolet plane, b[b]rozdá furrow.

The articulation of all unstressed vowels shifts towards the “central” [ъ]. When pronouncing unstressed [ы], [и], [у], [а] the force of the change is not very significant: cf. r[y]bak fisherman - r[y´]ryba fish, [s'i]net blue - [s'i´]niy súniy, r[y]ká ruká - r[ý]ki rýki, l[ a] say caress - l[á] gentle affectionate.. Unstressed [s], [i], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as the stressed ones, slightly shifting them to the center.
The unstressed [ь] ([с’ь]neuva sineva) should take an intermediate position between the unstressed [and] and the “central” [ъ].
The sound “er” is characterized as a vowel of the front-middle row, upper-middle rise, non-labialized.
The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [ъ] and [ь] stand out for their brevity. The remaining vowels are pronounced more clearly.
The vowel table, supplemented with unstressed sounds, takes the following form:
row: front middle rear
climb:
upper i´ y´ y(labial)y
and y
b
average
e´ Ъ ó (labial.)
lower a
á

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions depend on a number of conditions:
1) places in relation to the stressed syllable,
2) positions at the absolute beginning of the word,
3) hardness/softness of the preceding consonant.
The place in relation to the stressed syllable determines the degree of vowel reduction. In phonetics, it is customary to name syllables not according to their order in a word, but according to the place they occupy relative to the stressed syllable. All unstressed syllables are divided into prestressed and overstressed. The numbering of pre-stressed syllables is carried out in the direction from the stressed syllable, that is, from right to left.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, four vowels are possible - unstressed [u], [i], [s], [a]: n[u]zhda need, [h'i]s y'chasy, sh[y]lka silk, n [a] nightly night.
In the remaining unstressed syllables (second, third prestressed and post-stressed) strongly reduced vowels [ъ], [ь], as well as the sound [у] are pronounced. In the second pre-stressed syllable: d[b]movoy smoke and brownie, [m’j]sorubka meat grinder, [ch’u]dvorny miraculous.
In post-stressed syllables: swamp and swamps, tender gentle and tender, blue and blue, across the field, horse with horse.
In post-stressed syllables at the absolute end of the word, along with the sounds [ъ], [ь] and [у], the vowel [ы] is recorded, only very briefly: note[s] notes, note[ъ] note, nó[т'ь] note , note[y] note.
The position at the absolute beginning of a word after a pause also affects the characteristics of vowel reduction. In this position, the sounds [u], [i], [a] are pronounced regardless of their distance from the stressed syllable: [u] remove remove, [and] exporter exporter, [a] talk about stipulate.

Features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.

In a stressed syllable: drums [ý], [i´], [ы´], [e´], [ó], [á]
In the 1st pre-stressed syllable, at the absolute beginning of the word: unstressed [u], [i], [s], [a]
In the 2nd, 3rd pre-stressed syllable,in unstressed syllables: unstressed [ъ], [ь], [у] + [ы](at the absolute end of the word)
The hardness/softness of the preceding consonant is an important factor determining the possibility of the appearance of certain vowels:

1) after solid ones they can protrude[y], [s], [a], [b]: [meadow] meadow, [ly] go bald, [la]retz casket, [l]horses;
2) after soft ones are pronounced[y], [i], [b]: [l’u]to admire, [h’i]to blacken, [l’]to pick up an ice ax;
3) pre-shock[a] and [b] after soft ones are impossible: [p’i]dy´ ranks, [p’i]ti´ five, [p’i]dovoy private, [p’i]tiletka five-year plan;
4) [ъ] after soft ones appears only in the return form, in endings and formative suffixes. Such pronunciation is possible, not obligatory, and is associated with the task of conveying grammatical information about case, number, etc.:
received and´l[s’b] turned out - from baba[s’b] from babushya;
drip[l’b] drop - drip[l’b] drop;
to bears - to bears; to bears;
landing in y´sa[d'y]s - landing in y´sa[d’y]s.
All the features of vowel pronunciation analyzed above relate to the phonetics of commonly used significant words. Conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections, rare borrowings may not obey the described patterns. They allow, for example, the following pronunciation of non-high vowels: slept, but [o] not for long, b[o]á, andánt[e].kt

It is easy to notice that the expression of the thought contained in this phrase requires a mandatory pause after the word weapon. The presence of a pause creates two speech beats in a phrase. Thus, a speech beat is a part of a phrase limited by pauses and characterized by incompleteness intonation. Pauses between speech beats are shorter than between phrases.

Speech tact, like a phrase, is directly related to the expression of content in language. Depending on where one speech beat ends and the next one begins, sometimes the whole meaning of the phrase changes: How struck him // by his brother’s words. —How his words struck his brother. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats can lead to the complete destruction of thought.

As a rule, a phrase consists of several speech bars: In the hour of testing // bow to the fatherland // in Russian // at your feet (D. Kedrin). A beat can coincide with a single word. But usually several words are combined in a speech beat.

onetic vowel alternations. Designation of unstressed vowels in writing

A vowel belonging to a certain morpheme may be stressed in some words and unstressed in others. Thus, the unstressed [i] in the word [d’i]shevy cheap is correlated with the stressed labialized [ó], sounding in the same root in the word [d’ó]shevo cheap.

Sounds belonging to the same morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending) and replacing each other in different phonetic positions form phonetic alternation. In the above example, the phonetic alternation [ó] // [and] is fixed.

In Russian the following are possible: alternation of stressed and unstressed sounds:

1. [ý] // [y] z[ý]by, z[u]bnoy: teeth, dental.

2. [i´] // [i] // [b] [p’i´]shet, [p’i]sát, [p’i]san´na: writes, write, scribbling.

3. [ы´] // [ы] // [ъ] w[ы´]re, w[y]rok, w[ъ]roká: wider, wider, wider.

4. [i´] // [i´] // [i] // [i] [i´]games, s[y´]gran, [i]play, s[y]play: games, played, play, play.

5. [е´] // [ы] // [ъ] sh[e]st, sh[y]stá, sh[b]stóy: pole, pole, pole.

6. [e´] // [i] // [b] [p’e´]shiy, [p’i]shkom, [p’b]shekhod: on foot, on foot, pedestrian.

7. [ó] // [a] // [ъ] d[ó]mik, d[a]mashny, d[a]movoy: house, home, brownie.

8. [ó] // [i] // [b] [p’ó]stroy, [p’i]str i´t, [p’b]strostá: variegated, variegated, variegated.

9. [ó] // [s] // [ъ] sh[ó]lka, sh[y]lká, sh[b]isty: silk, silk, silky.

10. [á] // [a] // [ъ] herb, herb, herb, herb: herb, grass, herbal.

11. [á] // [i] // [b] [p’á]ty, [p’i]tak, [p’t]tachok: fifth, penny, penny.

Please note that the quality of an unstressed sound is not indicated in writing. The fact that the vowel is unstressed is a signal spellings. In the roots of the words walk, pestrity, pyatak, pronounced with an unstressed [i], the letter is not written. When choosing the correct letter in these examples, you need to focus on the stressed version of the pronunciation of the root: [p’e´]shiy, [p’ó]stro, [p’á]ty.

Such a check underlies the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphematic (more precisely, phonemic). The morpheme receives such a graphic representation in which. positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the strong version (a vowel is checked by stress, a consonant is checked by placing it before the vowel).

The spelling of unstressed vowels, not checked by stress, falls under another principle of spelling - traditional. In the dictionary words s[a]báka, p['i]chál, r['i]b i´na it is customary to write the letters o, e, i, in examples like um['i]rlá / um['i]rála - letters e and i. The last two examples are related to the operation of the rules, which in all reference books are given under the heading “Alternating vowels in the root.” It should be borne in mind that in this case we are not talking about any phonetic alternations.

It is extremely rare that unstressed vowels are indicated in writing in accordance with the phonetic principle of spelling. The prefix ras-/raz-/ros-/roz- has four graphic variants, correlated with the peculiarities of its pronunciation in different words, and not with the verification situation: r[a]tangle unravel, r[a]ruzrit destroy, r[ó] list painting in the presence of r[ó] razgryz raffle (the last option would be a test one, since in it the vowel is stressed, and the consonant is before the vowel).

vowel sounds

Consonant sounds: classification features.
When classifying consonants, it is customary to take into account a number of features:
1) the ratio of noise and tone (noisiness / sonority),
2) participation or non-participation of the voice (voiced / deaf),
3) hardness / softness,
4) place of education,
5) method of education.

The properties of pairing in deafness/voice and pairing in hardness/softness are specifically discussed.

Noisy and sonorant, voiceless and voiced consonants

Noisy and sonorant consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.

Nine sounds are sonorant in the Russian language: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [r], [r’], [j]. As with all consonants, when articulating sonorants, an obstacle is created in the oral cavity. However, the frictional force of the air stream on the close/closed organs of speech is minimal: the air stream finds a relatively free exit to the outside and no noise is generated. The air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m’], [n], [n’]), or into the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and the cheeks ([l], [l’]). The absence of noise may be due to the immediacy of the obstacle ([p], [p’]) or to the fairly wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, no noise is created and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.

In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [v], [d], [d], [zh], [z], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It occurs as a result of an air stream overcoming an obstacle. The tone component of the sound is minor and can either be absent altogether (for voiceless consonants) or complement the main one (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation/non-participation of the tone (voice) in the formation of the consonant sound.

Tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced sounds; their articulation requires the obligatory work of the vocal cords. Therefore, all sonorants are voiced: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [p], [p’], [j]. Among noisy consonants, the following sounds are considered voiced: [b], [b'], [v], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [zh], [ g:'], [z], [z'].

[b] - [p] [b’] - [p’] [z] - [s] [z’] - [s’]

[v] - [f] [v'] - [f'] [w] - [w] [w:'] - [w:']

[d] - [t] [d'] - [t'] [g] - [k] [g'] - [k']

The listed sounds are, respectively, either voiced paired or voiceless paired. The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. Voiced unpaired include all sonorants, and voiceless unpaired sounds include the sounds [ts], [ch’], [x], [x’].

onetic alternations of consonants according to deafness/voiceness. Indication of deafness/voicing of consonants in writing

Voicelessness/voice of consonants remains an independent feature that does not depend on anything in the following positions:
1) before vowels: [su]d court - [itch] itch, [ta]m there - [da]m I'll give;
2) before sonorants: [layer] layer - [evil]y evil, [tl']ya aphid - [dl']ya for;
3) before [v], [v’]: [sw’]ver ver - [beast’]beast.

In these positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness/voicedness.

In other cases, the appearance of a dull/voiced sound is predetermined by its position in a word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness/voiceness turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this occurs are considered weak according to the specified criterion.

In the Russian language there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, cf.: dý[b]a oak - du[p] oak, má[z']i ointment - ma[s'] ointment. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants in deafness / voicedness is recorded: [b] // [p] and [z’] // [s’].

In addition, positional changes concern situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are nearby. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of deaf people are necessarily likened to them in terms of deafness, as a result a sequence of voiceless sounds arises, cf.: ló[d]ochka boat - ló[tk]a boat (i.e. [d] // [t] before the deaf), ready[v']it prepares – ready[f't']e prepare (i.e. [v'] // [f'] before the deaf).

Voiceless consonants standing before voiced noisy ones (except for [в], [в']) change to voiced ones, a similarity occurs in terms of voicing, cf.: molo[t']i´t thresh – molo[d'b]á threshing ( [t'] // [d'] before a voiced voice), about [s']i´t to ask – about [z'b]a request (i.e. [s'] // [z'] before a voiced voice) .

The articulatory likening of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from the Latin assimilatio ‘likeness’). Thus, assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicedness were described above.

The designation of deafness/voicing of consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only independent, independent deafness / voicedness is indicated in writing. Sound features that turn out to be “forced”, positionally conditioned, are not indicated in writing. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written with one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling operates: in the word du[n] oak the letter b is written, as in the test du[b]a oak.

An exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription[p]transcription if available transcribe[b’]transcribe transcribe) and prefixes with s/z (and[s]use used if available and[h]learn to study). The graphic appearance of such examples falls under the phonetic principle of spelling. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work completely, being combined with the traditional one: raise = raise stir.

The choice of letter in dictionary words such as railway station, and [z]best asbestos is subject to the traditional principle of spelling. Their writing does not depend either on verification (it is impossible) or on pronunciation.

hard and soft consonants

Hard and soft consonants differ in the position of the tongue.

When pronouncing soft consonants ([b’], [v’], [d’], [z’], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstruction.

When pronouncing hard consonants ([b], [v], [d], [z], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.

Consonants form 15 pairs of sounds contrasting in hardness/softness. All of them are either hard doubles or soft doubles:

[b] - [b’] [p] - [p’] [m] - [m’]

[v] - [v'] [f] - [f'] [n] - [n']

[g] - [g'] [k] - [k'] [r] - [r']

[d] - [d'] [t] - [t'] [l] - [l']

[z] - [z’] [s] - [s’] [x] - [x’]

Hard unpaired consonants include the consonants [ts], [sh], [zh], and soft unpaired consonants include the consonants [ch’], [sh:’], [zh:’] and [j].

The consonants [w] and [sh:’], [zh] and [zh:’] do not form pairs, since they differ in two characteristics at once: hardness/softness and brevity/longitude.

It should be noted that the sound [zh:’] is rare. It is possible only in a limited range of words: I ride, reins, yeast, splashes, later and some others. At the same time, [zh:’] is increasingly being replaced by [zh:].

The sound [j] occupies a very special position among soft consonants. For the remaining soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, additional articulation. The consonant [j] has the indicated articulation as the main one, because There are no other barriers when pronouncing [j]. Therefore, the sound [j] is, in principle, not capable of having a paired solid.

onetic alternations of consonants in hardness/softness. Indication of hardness/softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b

The hardness/softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not one arising due to positional changes, is recorded in the following strong positions:

1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu]k bow - [l'u]k hatch, [but]s nose - [n'o]s carried, pas[t e´]l pastel - pos[t 'ere bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired hard consonants are pronounced in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be recognized as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, in common words it has become possible to pronounce both hard and soft consonants before [e].

2) at the end of the word: ko[n] kon - ko[n’] horse, zha[r] heat - zha[r’] fry;

3) for sounds [l], [l’], regardless of their position: vo[l]ná wave - vo[l’]ná is free;

4) for consonants [c], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [ р], [р'] (in front-lingual speakers)
– in the position before [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'] (before the back-lingual ones): gó[r]ka gorka - gó[r']ko bitterly, bá[n]ka bank - bá[n']ka bathhouse;
– in the position before [b], [b’], [p], [p’], [m], [m’] (before labials): i[z]bá izba - re[z’]bá carving;

In other cases, the hardness or softness of a consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.

Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of connecting soft [n'] with hard [s], cf.: kó[n'] horse - kó[ns] horse, Spain [n']ia Spain - spain [ns] cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before hard). The pair ju[n’] June – ju’[n’s]ky June does not obey the indicated pattern. But this exception is the only one.

Assimilation by softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. The only exception is the replacement of [n] with [n'] before [h'] and [w:'], cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'ch']ik drum, gon [n]ok gonok – gó[n' w:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft).

In accordance with the old norms, one should say: l ya´[m’k’]and straps, [v’b’]it to drive in; [d'v']open the door; [s’j]eat; [s’t’]ená wall. In modern pronunciation there is no obligatory softening of the first sound in these cases. Thus, the word la´[mk’]i straps (similar to trya´[pk’]i rags, lá[fk’] and benches) is pronounced only with a hard word, other sound combinations allow for variability in pronunciation.

The designation on the letter applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined hardness/softness of paired consonants. At the letter level, the soft quality of the sound [n’] in the words drum and racer is not recorded graphically.

In contrast to deafness / sonority, the independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it - the letters i, е, ю, я: lik, ice, hatch, clang;
IN modern language the letter e no longer denotes the softness of the preceding consonant. The combination of letters ...te... cannot be read if you do not see which word it belongs to - dough or test.

2) at the end of the word there is a soft sign: horse, fry, dust;

3) in the middle of the word, before the consonant, there is a soft sign: darkness, very, bathhouse.

The independent hardness of paired consonants is conveyed by the following means:

Letters y, o, u, a, e: bast, boat, bow, weasel, karate;

At the end of the word there is no soft sign: con_, heat_, dust_l;

In the middle of the word there is no soft sign before the consonant:
t_ min, s_ looks, bank_ ka.

The hardness/softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. The spelling i/y, e/o, yu/u, ya/a after the letters w, zh, ch, sch, c, corresponding to unpaired ones, is dictated by tradition: life, number, chicken, burn, burn, joke, brochure, cup. The same applies to the use/non-use of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, married_, quiet, baby_, thing, comrade_, can, brick_.

Please note that the names of the letters b and b are insidious. The letter "hard sign" never denotes hardness; its use is associated with a separating function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the following vowel sound: st will eat, a[d’jу]tant adjutant.

The functions of the letter "soft sign" are broader. Firstly, it can also be used in a dividing function, but not after the prefixes: [вjý]ga blizzard, bu[l’jó]n broth. In this case, the letter ь does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, the soft sign can traditionally be written in a number of grammatical forms after letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). When used in this way, the letter ь again does not convey the softness of sounds. And finally, in a number of situations the letter ь indicates the softness of consonants in a letter. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).

Place and method of consonant formation

The place of formation of a consonant sound is a sign showing in which place in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle.

This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (stationary) organs. Thus, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labiolabial ([p], [p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m']) and labiodental ([ f], [f'], [v], [v']). Consonants formed by active participation tongue, are divided into anterior lingual teeth ([s], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [ts], [l] , [l'], [n], [n']), anterior lingual anteropalatal ([w], [w'], [zh], [zh'], [h'], [r], [r'] ), midlingual midpalatal ([j]), backlingual midpalatal ([k'], [g'], [x']) and backlingual backpalatal ([k], [g], [x]). All of the listed sound groups are reflected in the table of consonants (see below).

When looking at the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own speech organs will help you understand why each sound is placed in a particular cell.

The method of formation of a consonant is a characteristic that simultaneously indicates the type of obstacle in the oral cavity and the method of overcoming it.

There are two main ways to form an obstruction - either complete closure of the speech organs, or their bringing together to the distance of the gap. This is how stop and fricative consonants are distinguished.

When articulating slots, a stream of exhaled air exits in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction against the adjacent organs of speech: [f], [f'], [v], [v'], [s], [s'], [z], [ z'], [w], [w¯'], [zh], [zh¯'], [j], [x], [x'].

The pronunciation of stop consonants includes the moment of complete shutter of the speech organs, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bow may be different, depending on which further division into classes is carried out.

Closing plosives involve eliminating an obstacle with a strong and short push of air that quickly comes out: [p], [p'], [b], [b'], [t], [t'], [d], [d' ], [k], [k'], [g], [g'].

In stop affricates, the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not sharply open, but only open slightly, forming a gap for air to escape: [ts], [h’].

Stop nasals do not require breaking the stop at all. Thanks to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely exits through the nasal cavity: [m], [m’], [n], [n’].

When the closing lateral [l] and [l’] are formed, the air also does not come into contact with the obstacle, bypassing it along its trajectory - between the lowered side of the tongue and the cheeks.

In some textbooks nasal and lateral sounds are described as stop-pass sounds.

Closing tremors are characterized by periodic closing and opening of the speech organs, that is, their vibration: [p], [p’].

Sometimes tremors are considered not as a type of stop, but as a separate, third type of consonant along with stops and fricatives.

Phonetic alternations of consonants according to place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound

The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other.

Before the anterior palatal noisy ones, the dental ones are replaced by the anterior palatal ones. There is a positional assimilation based on the place of formation: [with] game with game – [w sh]uboy with fur coat (i.e. [s] // [w] before the anterior palatal), [with] game with game – [w:' h' ]championat with championship (i.e. [s] // [w:'] before the anterior palatal).

Plosives before fricatives and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with sounds that are closer in terms of articulation. The assimilation is carried out according to the method of formation: o[t]ygárátávát – o[tss]ypát pourátá (i.e. [t] // [ts] before the fricative).

In many cases, several features of consonants are subject to positional change at once. Thus, in the above example with the championship, the assimilation affected not only the sign of the place of formation, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of po[d] playing under the game - po[h' w:']koy under the cheek ([d] // [h'] before the voiceless, soft, anterior palatal, fricative [w:']) there was a similarity in all four characteristics - deafness, softness, place and method of formation.

In the examples, light [g]ok is light – light [x'k']y light, mya´[g]ok is soft – mya´[x'k']y soft, where [g] alternates with [x'], and not with [k'] before [k'], there is a dissimilarity (dissimilation) of sounds according to the method of formation. At the same time, dissimilation (dissimilation) on this basis is combined with assimilation (assimilation) on deafness and softness.

In addition to the phenomena described above, phonetic alternation of consonants with a zero sound can be recorded in Russian speech.

Usually [t] / [t'] and [d] / [d'] are not pronounced between teeth, between [r] and [h'], between [r] and [ts], and [l] does not sound before [ nc]. So, the deletion of a consonant is presented in the following combinations:

Stl: happy happiness – happy happy, i.e. [T'] // ;

Stn: place of place – local local, i.e. [T] // ;

Zdn: uez[d]a district – uezny uezdny, i.e. [d] // ;

Zdts: bridle[d]á bridle – under the bridle´ under the bridle, i.e. [d] // ;Dutch[d’]dutch Dutch – Dutch are Dutch, i.e. [d’] // ;

Rdts: heart [d’]échka heart – heart heart, i.e. [d’] // ;

Rdch: heart [d’]échka heart – serchishko heart, i.e. [d’] // ;

Lnts: só[l]sunny sun – sun sun, i.e. [l] // .

The loss of [j] is similar to this phenomenon. It occurs when the iota is preceded by a vowel, and followed by [i] or [b]: mo moya - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] // .

Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the similarity of consonants in place/method of formation or with the fact of their replacement by a zero sound is indicated in writing. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian spelling, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the test. Example [w] fur coat is written as with a fur coat, because. there is [with] a game with a game. The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically restored on the basis of the test happiness, etc.

Syllable

A syllable can consist of one or more sounds. In each syllable, only one syllabic sound is distinguished, which makes up the core, the apex of the syllable. Other sounds are adjacent to it - non-syllabic.

Syllable types are characterized by their initial and final sounds. According to the initial sound, syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with a non-syllable sound: [ru-ká] hand,

2) uncovered - starting with a syllabic sound: [á-ist] stork.

According to the final sound, syllables are divided into:
1) closed - ending in a non-syllabic: [ball-kon] balcony;

2) open - ending in a syllabic sound: [va-z] vase.

In modern linguistics, there are several definitions of a syllable. The definition of a syllable as a collection of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) is widespread - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The syllabic sound is considered the most sonorous; it represents the apex of the syllable. With this understanding, the syllable is constructed according to the law of ascending sonority.

This law predetermines the following features of syllable division.

1. Non-finite syllables tend to be open. The majority of open syllables: [na-ý-k] science, [a-pa-zdá-l] late.

2. Closed syllables in a word can appear only in three cases:

1) at the end of the word: [pla-tok] scarf, [rash:’ot] calculation;

2) at the junction of sonorant and noisy in a non-initial syllable. The sonorant one goes to the previous syllable, the noisy one goes to the next one: [zam-shъ] suede, [ball-kon] balcony;

3) at the junction of [j] and any consonant. The sound [j] goes to the previous syllable, the consonant to the following one: [vaj-ná] war, [máj-kъ] T-shirt.

When learning to divide words into syllables, one should remember that the rules do not fully correspond to linguistic facts and still remain arbitrary, significant primarily within the framework of a specific theory.

In conclusion, we note that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure of the word and the rules of transfer in writing.
Let's compare:
Phonetic syllables Morphemic division Word transfer
[ma-jór] major may-or
[sa-gla-sn] so-glas-n-a so-voice-na / sog-la-sna

§ 52. Phonetic system The Russian language does not allow combinations of hard consonants with unstressed front vowels ([i], [ie], [b]): these vowels can only appear after soft consonants.

In the Russian language, combinations of hard consonants (except for back ones) with all front vowels ([ы], [у], [ㆄ] and [ъ]) are possible. Hard back-linguals can be combined in native Russian words only with vowels [у], [ㆄ], [ъ]. As for combinations of back-language words with [s], they are possible in borrowed proper and common nouns and in toponyms, as well as in formations from them. The combination [ky] is possible, for example, in [ky]zyl, [ky]shtym; [gy] - in Ole [gy]ch (patronymic). The combination [xy] is not fixed. Before the vowel [ые], only hissing and [ts] are possible. The remaining hard consonants are combined with unstressed [e] in borrowed proper and common nouns, for example [te] in [te]ism, [de] in [de]ntim, [se] in [sensory], [ze] in [ze ] o, [re] in [re]leyny, [pe] in [pe]ru (country name), [be] in [be]be ( Small child), as well as in complex words with the first component of two, three, four, for example two[he]element.

§ 53. The following combinations “hard consonant + unstressed vowel” are presented in the Russian language: [ty]: (v) [ty]lu, [dy]: [dy]mok, [sy]: [son]nok, [zy] : ko[zy], [tsy]: [tsy]rkach, [shy]: [shy]forge (simple), [zhy]: [zhy]rock, [ny]: [ny]rock, [ry]: [trotter, [ly]: [ski]land, [py]: [burning], [would]: [w]loy, [fy]: [snort]growl, [you]: [express] [we]: braid[we], [tu]: [tu]sew, [du]: [soul]sha, [su]: [dry]shit, [zu]: [zu]shave, [tsu]: [ tsu]kat, [shu]: [shu]rsh, [zhu]: [zhu]rumble, [ku]: [ku]da, [gu]: [gu]ba, [hu]: [hu]la, [ well]: [well]zhda, [ru]: [ru]da, [lu]: [lu]ga, [pu]: [pu]rga, [bu]: [bu]ton, [fu]: [fu ]razh, [wu]: [vu]lkan, [mu]: [mu]ka; [tㆄ]: [tㆄ]bun, [dㆄ]: [dㆄ]horns, [sㆄ]: [sㆄ]doc, [zㆄ]: v[zㆄ]ymy, [tsㆄ]: [tsㆄ]ri, [wㆄ(ye)]: [wㆄ(ye)]gi, [wㆄ(ye)]: [wㆄ(ye)]ra, [kㆄ]: [kㆄ]za , [gㆄ]: [gㆄ]ra, [xㆄ]: [xㆄ]nzha, [nㆄ]: [nㆄ]sos, [рㆄ]: [рㆄ]dit, [lㆄ]: [lㆄ]za, [pㆄ]: [pㆄ]sti, [bㆄ]: [bㆄ]len, [fㆄ]: [fㆄ]zan, [vㆄ]: [vㆄ]zit, [mㆄ]: [mㆄ]rose; [shye]: [shye]stop, [zhye]: [zhye]stoky, [tsye]: (on) [tsye]pi; [t]: [t]mahawk, [dъ]: [dъ]rovat, [sъ]: [sъ]argument, [zъ]: [zъ]pasny, [tsъ]: [tsъ]lovat, [шъ]: [ shа]rovoy, [zhа]: [zhа]rovoy, [къ]: [къ]valer, [gъ]: [гъ]rodskoy, [хъ]: [хъ]meleon, [нъ]: [нъ]sovay, [ ръ]: [ръ]erase, [лъ]: [лъ]zaret, [пъ]: [пъ]left, [бъ]: [бъ]left, [фъ]: [фъ]brikant, [въ]: [въ ]dovoz, [m]: [m]loko.

§ 54. The combinations “hard consonant + unstressed vowel” in their relation to the morphemic structure of word forms are presented as follows.

1. In the position of the beginning of the root, all combinations of this type are presented: (in) [ty]lu, [breathe]dyat, [son], [zy˙]ryane (obsolete), [tsy]rkach, [shi]karny, [zhy]loy, [dig]rock, [dig]vok, [ski]st, [blaze], [was]loy, [snort]growl, [vy˙]tyo, [washy]tyo, [that] sew, [show] sew, [su]coffin, [zim]shave, [tsu]kat, [shu]joke, [butter]rumble, [ku]ma, [gu]ba, [hu]la, [well] zhda, [ru]bakha, [lu]na, [pu]skat, [bu]maga, [cap]fazhka, [vul]lkan, [mu]ka, [tㆄ]bak, [dㆄ]ry, [ sㆄ]dy, [zㆄ]rya, [tsㆄ]ri, [shㆄ(ye)]ry, [zhㆄ(ye)]ra, [kㆄ]za, [gㆄ]ret, [xㆄ ]lva, [nㆄ]ga, [rㆄ]dit, [lㆄ]mother, [pㆄ]ry, [bㆄ]bry, [fㆄ]kir, [vㆄ]zit, [mㆄ]rit . . , [m]sily.

The following combinations are presented at the beginning of the root in a limited number of cases: [you]: in noun forms. rear (in [ty]lu, [ty]ly), in [ty]lovaya, [ty]nok (from tyn), [ty]rsa (special) (a mixture of sand and sawdust), in verbs with the component poke ( zak[ty]kat) and in the position before a soft consonant ([ty˙]chinka, [ty˙]chkovaya); [dy] in noun forms. smoke (in [smoke]mu, [smoke]we), in [smoke]mok, [smoke]movoy, [smoke]-flow, [hole]ra, [breathe], [breathing], [dash]shlovoy , [on hind legs] (on hind legs); [zy] in [zy]bun, [zy]buchiy, in verbs with the component to call (to call) and in the position before a soft consonant - in obsolete. [zy˙]ryans; [we] in [dive]dive, [dive]rock, [dive˙]dive, [dive˙]tyo; [ly] in [ly]coder (reg.), [ly]sowish, [ly]sogolovy, [ly]sun and [ly]sukha (both - zool.), [ly]tat (simple) (shirk) , [ski] and in the position before a soft consonant - in [ly˙]nyat (simple) (to shirk), [ly˙]syon (reg. (coot)), [ly˙]net; [py] in [py]zhyan (fish), [blaze], [puff]punch (simple), [torture], [try]try, [puff]puff, [puff]puff, and also in the form of a noun. ardor: (in) [dust]lu, in [dust]zhy, [inquisitive] and in the position before a soft consonant ([dust, [dust]left, [dust] (simple), [ wheatgrass; [fy] in [fy]rkun (colloquial), [huff] growl; [you] in words with the morphs vys, vysh, high ([high] high, [height] height, [height] . ).

2. In the middle of the root there are combinations: [you]: la[ty]shi, [dy˙]: ka[dy˙]ki, [ly]: ko[ly]hat, [by˙]: ko[by˙] faces, [vy˙]: ko[vy˙]lyat, [we]: porridge [we]shi; [tu]: ra[tu]sha, [zu]: po[zu]ment, [zhu]: ko[zhu]ha, [ku]: kara[kul], [lu˙]: po[lu˙] read, [pu]: pa[pu]asy; [tㆄ]: ballet [tㆄ]lyon, [sㆄ]: to [sㆄ]dit, [zㆄ]: to break up, [tsㆄ]: ka[tsㆄ]weika, [sh ㆄ]: li[shㆄ]ya, [zhㆄ]: u[zhㆄ]sat, [kㆄ]: lo[kㆄ]ki, [gㆄ]: o[gㆄ]rod, [xㆄ] : want[xㆄ]tat, [nㆄ]: ka[nㆄ]reika, [pㆄ]: ka[pㆄ]mel, [lㆄ]: ka[lㆄ]chi, [pㆄ]: lo [pㆄ]tat, [bㆄ]: la[bㆄ]rant, [fㆄ]: pro[fㆄ]nation, [vㆄ]: say [vㆄ]rit, [mㆄ]: ro[m ㆄ]nist; [tsye]: bu[tsye]fal [joking. and iron. about a bad horse; zool. corydalisbucephalus (butterfly)], [shye]: according to [shye]khonsky (from topon.); [dъ]: ka[dа]chny, [съ]: по[съ]х, [къ]: economic [гъ]: bo[gа]tyri, [нъ]: ki[nа]var, [ръ]: pa[ръ]llelism, [лъ]: pa[l]talization (special), [пъ]: mono[пъ]lyze, [bъ]: a[b]nement, [въ]: ka-[v]lerian, [мъ]: ko[m]nding.

3. At the junction of the prefix and the root, the following combinations are presented: [you]: o[you]play, [dy]: play, [sy]: [play], [zy]: play, [ would]: about [to] play, [to ˙]: about [to play ˙] to play, [to play ˙]: to [to play ˙] to play, [to whittle]: [to whittle, [to grind]: learn, [bu˙]: o[bu˙]learn, [bㆄ]: su[bㆄ] Alpine special), [zㆄ]: work out (simple). The presence of these combinations in this position is limited by the composition of prefixes ending in consonants and roots beginning with vowels.

4. At the junction of the suffix ec (ts) and inflection, the combinations [tsy], [tsu] are recorded, for example [tsy] in lodgers[tsy], [tsu] in lodger[tsu].

5. At the junction of the root and the suffix, the following combinations are presented: [you]: ka[ty]shek, [dy]: ola[dy]shek, [ny]: kli[ny]shek, [ry]: navel[ry]shek, [ly]: ko[ly]shek, [by]: vor[by]shek, [you]: back [you]sh, [we]: reception [my]sh, [tu]: aunt [tu]shka, [du]: ola[du]shka, [zu]: pa[zu]shka, [ku]: kva[ku]shka, [well]: vor[nu]shka, [ru]: squaw[ru]shka, [lu]: honey[lu]shka, [pu]: chick[pu]shka, [bu]: grandma[bu]shka, [wu]: solo[vu]shka, [mu]: ma[mu]shka, [tㆄ]: shield[tㆄ]howl, [dㆄ]: ez[dㆄ]howl, [sㆄ]: head[sㆄ]howl, [zㆄ]: thunder[zㆄ]howl, [k ㆄ]: ro[kㆄ]voy, [gㆄ]: be[gㆄ]howl, [xㆄ]: tse[xㆄ]voy, [nㆄ]: vol[nㆄ]howl, [pㆄ] : yes[pㆄ]voy, [lㆄ]: va[lㆄ]voy, [pㆄ]: ti[pㆄ]voy, [bㆄ]: ger[bㆄ]voy, [vㆄ]: pra [vㆄ]howl, [mㆄ]: groo[mㆄ]howl, [tsye]: ring[tsye]voy, [shye]: du[shye]voy, [zhye]: god[zhye]stvo, [tъ ]: ke[t]vy, [dъ]: so[d]vy, [съ]: r[съ]вый, [зъ]: base[zъ]vy, [къ]: ma[kа]vy, [гъ ]: man[g]vy, [хъ]: mountain[хъ]vy, [нъ]: flat[nъ]vy, [ръ]: tooth[rъ]vy, [лъ]: и[лъ]вый, [бъ ]: edge[b]vy, [v]: i[v]vy, [mъ]: ha[m]vy.

6. At the junction of root and inflection, the following combinations are recorded: [you]: la[ty], [dy]: birth[dy], [sy]: ko[sy], [zy]: goat[zy], [shy]: but[shy], [zhy]: skin[s], [ny]: cop[ny], [ry]: across[ry], [ly]: head[ly], [py]: cereal[py], [by]: pipe[by], [fy]: graphs[fy], [we]: reception[we], [tu]: ro[tu], [du]: vo[du], [su]: thief [su], [zu]: po[zu], [shu]: but [shu], [zhu]: ko[zhu], [ku]: ro[ku], [gu]: ro[gu], [ hu]: epo[hu], [nu]: uro[nu], [ru]: go[ru], [lu]: po[lu], [pu]: la[pu], [bu]: pro[ bu], [fu]: ar[fu], [vu]: horseshoe[vu], [mu]: yes[mu], [тъ]: ro[тъ] (spelling company), [дъ]: ro[ dъ], [съ]: bur[съ], [зъ]: ro[zъ], [tsъ]: yay[tsъ], [шъ]: ка[шъ], [жъ]: ko[жъ], [къ ]: ro[k], [хъ]: drought[хъ], [нъ]: edges[нъ], [ръ]: pa[ръ], [лъ]: по[лъ], [пъ]: cru[пъ ], [b]: ry[b], [f]: shka[f], [v]: koro[v], [m]: ra[m].

In this position, combinations of hard consonants with an unstressed vowel [ㆄ] are not presented, since the latter in a position after a consonant is possible only in the first pre-stressed syllable, and inflections in the Russian language are either stressed or post-stressed.

7. At the junction of components in complex and compound words: [zhy˙]: ko[zhy˙]mit, [tu˙]: poly[tu˙]cheba, [dㆄ]: sa[dㆄ]water, [tㆄ ]: young[tㆄ]fighter, li[tㆄ]union, [sㆄ]: bo[sㆄ]legged, [zㆄ]: ko[zㆄ]doy (bird), mu[zㆄ] unification, [kㆄ]: ru[kㆄ]sink, [gㆄ]: lo-[gㆄ]ped, [xㆄ]: air[xㆄ]swimmer, [nㆄ]: one[nㆄ]love . [fㆄ]: pro[fㆄ]active, [vㆄ]: holo[vㆄ]wash, [mㆄ]: sa[mㆄ]var, [shye]: ka[shye]var, [t]: le [t] writing, [d]: ro[d] chief, [g]: book-[g]-seller, [n']: vi [n'] merchant, [r']: old [r'] regime, [l' ]: ang[l]Saxon, [b]: ra[b]- owner, [v]: primary, [m]: sa[m]murder.

8. The combinations [you], [дㆄ], [сㆄ], [зㆄ], [нㆄ], [пㆄ], [вㆄ], [дъ], [съ], [ зъ], [нъ], [пъ] (combinations [дㆄ], [сㆄ], [зㆄ], [нㆄ], [пㆄ], [вㆄ], [дъ], [зъ], [нъ], [пъ] are also used as prepositions: [дㆄ]ㆃ at home, [withㆄ]ㆃ me, [зㆄ]ㆃ me, [нㆄ]ㆃ me, [пㆄ]ㆃ garden, [in ㆄ]ㆃ to me, [dъ]ㆃ winter, [zъ]ㆃ winter, [нъ]ㆃ to you, [пъ]ㆃ to you, for example: [w]win, [dㆄ]drive, [sㆄ]bend, [zㆄ]bend, [nㆄ]bend, [pㆄ]drive, [vㆄ]drive, [dj]drive, [j]jump, [z]jump, [nj]jump, [pj]drive Combinations [тㆄ], [дㆄ], [рㆄ], [бㆄ], [зㆄ], [тъ], [дъ], [ръ], [бъ], [зъ] are part of the prefixes : o[tㆄ]bend, [dㆄ]bend, [pㆄ]torn, o[bㆄ]heat, warm[zㆄ]- warm up, o[tㆄ]warm up, [dㆄ]warm up, [ to warm up, to warm up.

Before moving on to phonetic analysis with examples, we draw your attention to the fact that letters and sounds in words are not always the same thing.

Letters- these are letters, graphic symbols, with the help of which the content of a text is conveyed or a conversation is outlined. Letters are used to visually convey meaning; we perceive them with our eyes. The letters can be read. When you read letters out loud, you form sounds - syllables - words.

A list of all letters is just an alphabet

Almost every schoolchild knows how many letters are in the Russian alphabet. That's right, there are 33 of them in total. The Russian alphabet is called the Cyrillic alphabet. The letters of the alphabet are arranged in a certain sequence:

Russian alphabet:

In total, the Russian alphabet uses:

• 21 letters for consonants;
• 10 letters - vowels;
• and two: ь (soft sign) and ъ (hard sign), which indicate properties, but do not themselves define any sound units.

You often pronounce sounds in phrases differently from how you write them in writing. In addition, the word can use more letters than sounds. For example, “children’s” - the letters “T” and “S” merge into one phoneme [ts]. And vice versa, the number of sounds in the word “blacken” is greater, since the letter “Yu” in this case is pronounced as [yu].

What is phonetic analysis?

We perceive spoken speech by ear. By phonetic analysis of a word we mean the characteristics of the sound composition. In the school curriculum, such analysis is more often called “sound-letter” analysis. So, with phonetic analysis, you simply describe the properties of sounds, their characteristics depending on the environment and the syllabic structure of a phrase united by a common word stress.

Phonetic transcription

For sound-letter parsing, a special transcription in square brackets is used. For example, it is correctly written:

• black -> [h"orny"]
• apple -> [yablaka]
• anchor -> [yakar"]
• Christmas tree -> [yolka]
• sun -> [sontse]

The phonetic parsing scheme uses special symbols. Thanks to this, it is possible to correctly designate and distinguish the letter notation (spelling) and the sound definition of letters (phonemes).

• The phonetically parsed word is enclosed in square brackets – ;
• a soft consonant is indicated by a transcription sign [’] - an apostrophe;
• percussive [´] - accent;
• in complex word forms from several roots, the secondary stress sign [`] - gravis is used (not practiced in the school curriculum);
• the letters of the alphabet Yu, Ya, E, Ё, ь and Ъ are NEVER used in transcription (in the curriculum);
• for doubled consonants, [:] is used - a sign of the longitude of the sound.

Below are detailed rules for orthoepic, alphabetic, phonetic and word analysis with online examples, in accordance with general school standards of the modern Russian language. Professional linguists' transcriptions of phonetic characteristics differ in accents and other symbols with additional acoustic features of vowel and consonant phonemes.

How to make a phonetic analysis of a word?

The following diagram will help you carry out letter analysis:

• Write down the necessary word and say it out loud several times.
• Count how many vowels and consonants there are in it.
• Indicate the stressed syllable. (Stress, using intensity (energy), distinguishes a certain phoneme in speech from a number of homogeneous sound units.)
• Divide the phonetic word into syllables and indicate their total number. Remember that syllable division in is different from the rules of transfer. The total number of syllables always matches the number of vowels.
• In the transcription, sort the word by sounds.
• Write the letters from the phrase in a column.
• Opposite each letter in square brackets, indicate its sound definition (how it is heard). Remember that sounds in words are not always identical to letters. The letters "ь" and "ъ" do not represent any sounds. The letters “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya”, “i” can represent 2 sounds at once.
• Analyze each phoneme separately and indicate its properties separated by commas:
  • for a vowel we indicate in the characteristic: vowel sound; stressed or unstressed;
  • in the characteristics of consonants we indicate: consonant sound; hard or soft, voiced or deaf, sonorant, paired/unpaired in hardness-softness and sonority-dullness.
• At the end of the phonetic analysis of the word, draw a line and count the total number of letters and sounds.

This scheme is practiced in the school curriculum.

An example of phonetic analysis of a word

Here is a sample phonetic analysis of the composition for the word “phenomenon” → [yivl’e′n’ie]. In this example there are 4 vowels and 3 consonants. There are only 4 syllables: I-vle′-n-e. The emphasis falls on the second.

Sound characteristics of letters:

i [th] - acc., unpaired soft, unpaired voiced, sonorant [i] - vowel, unstressedv [v] - acc., paired hard, paired sound l [l'] - acc., paired soft., unpaired . sound, sonorant [e′] - vowel, stressed [n’] - consonant, paired soft, unpaired sound, sonorant and [i] - vowel, unstressed [th] - consonant, unpaired. soft, unpaired sound, sonorant [e] - vowel, unstressed________________________In total, the word phenomenon has 7 letters, 9 sounds. The first letter “I” and the last “E” each represent two sounds.

Now you know how to do sound-letter analysis yourself. The following is a classification of sound units of the Russian language, their relationships and transcription rules for sound-letter parsing.

Phonetics and sounds in Russian

What sounds are there?

All sound units are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowel sounds, in turn, can be stressed or unstressed. The consonant sound in Russian words can be: hard - soft, voiced - deaf, hissing, sonorous.

How many sounds are there in Russian living speech?

The correct answer is 42.

Doing phonetic analysis online, you will find that 36 consonants and 6 vowels are involved in word formation. Many people have a reasonable question: why is there such a strange inconsistency? Why does the total number of sounds and letters differ for both vowels and consonants?

All this is easily explained. A number of letters, when participating in word formation, can denote 2 sounds at once. For example, softness-hardness pairs:

• [b] - cheerful and [b’] - squirrel;
• or [d]-[d’]: home - to do.

And some do not have a pair, for example [h’] will always be soft. If you doubt it, try to say it firmly and make sure it is impossible: stream, pack, spoon, black, Chegevara, boy, little rabbit, bird cherry, bees. Thanks to this practical solution, our alphabet has not reached dimensionless proportions, and the sound units are optimally complemented, merging with each other.

Vowel sounds in Russian words

Vowel sounds Unlike consonants, they are melodic; they flow freely, as if in a chant, from the larynx, without barriers or tension of the ligaments. The louder you try to pronounce the vowel, the wider you will have to open your mouth. And vice versa, the louder you try to pronounce a consonant, the more energetically you will close your mouth. This is the most striking articulatory difference between these phoneme classes.

The stress in any word form can only fall on the vowel sound, but there are also unstressed vowels.

How many vowel sounds are there in Russian phonetics?

Russian speech uses fewer vowel phonemes than letters. There are only six shock sounds: [a], [i], [o], [e], [u], [s]. And let us remind you that there are ten letters: a, e, e, i, o, u, y, e, i, yu. The vowels E, E, Yu, I are not “pure” sounds in transcription are not used. Often, when parsing words by letter, the emphasis falls on the listed letters.

Phonetics: characteristics of stressed vowels

The main phonemic feature of Russian speech is the clear pronunciation of vowel phonemes in stressed syllables. Stressed syllables in Russian phonetics are distinguished by the force of exhalation, increased duration of sound and are pronounced undistorted. Since they are pronounced clearly and expressively, sound analysis of syllables with stressed vowel phonemes is much easier to carry out. The position in which the sound does not undergo changes and retains its basic form is called strong position. This position can only be occupied by a stressed sound and a syllable. Unstressed phonemes and syllables remain in a weak position.

• The vowel in a stressed syllable is always in a strong position, that is, it is pronounced more clearly, with the greatest strength and duration.
• A vowel in an unstressed position is in a weak position, that is, it is pronounced with less force and not so clearly.

In the Russian language, only one phoneme “U” retains unchangeable phonetic properties: kuruza, tablet, u chus, u lov - in all positions it is pronounced clearly as [u]. This means that the vowel “U” is not subject to qualitative reduction. Attention: in writing, the phoneme [y] can also be indicated by another letter “U”: muesli [m’u ´sl’i], key [kl’u ´ch’], etc.

Analysis of the sounds of stressed vowels

The vowel phoneme [o] occurs only in a strong position (under stress). In such cases, “O” is not subject to reduction: cat [ko´ t'ik], bell [kalako´ l'ch'yk], milk [malako´], eight [vo´ s'im'], search [paisko´ vaya], dialect [go´ var], autumn [o´ s'in'].

An exception to the rule of a strong position for “O”, when the unstressed [o] is also pronounced clearly, are only some foreign words: cocoa [kaka "o], patio [pa"tio], radio [ra"dio], boa [bo a "] and a number of service units, for example, the conjunction but. The sound [o] in writing can be reflected by another letter “ё” - [o]: thorn [t’o´ rn], fire [kas’t’o´ r]. It will also not be difficult to analyze the sounds of the remaining four vowels in the stressed position.

Unstressed vowels and sounds in Russian words

It is possible to make a correct sound analysis and accurately determine the characteristics of a vowel only after placing stress in the word. Do not forget also about the existence of homonymy in our language: za"mok - zamo"k and about the change in phonetic qualities depending on the context (case, number):

• I'm home [ya do "ma].
• New houses [no "vye da ma"].

IN unstressed position the vowel is modified, that is, pronounced differently than written:

• mountains - mountain = [go "ry] - [ga ra"];
• he - online = [o "n] - [a nla"yn]
• witness line = [sv’id’e “t’i l’n’itsa].

Such changes in vowels in unstressed syllables are called reduction. Quantitative, when the duration of the sound changes. And high-quality reduction, when the characteristics of the original sound change.

The same unstressed vowel letter can change its phonetic characteristics depending on its position:

• primarily relative to the stressed syllable;
• at the absolute beginning or end of a word;
• in open syllables (consisting of only one vowel);
• on the influence of neighboring signs (ь, ъ) and consonant.

Yes, it varies 1st degree of reduction. It is subject to:

• vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable;
• naked syllable at the very beginning;
• repeated vowels.

Note: To make a sound-letter analysis, the first pre-stressed syllable is determined not from the “head” of the phonetic word, but in relation to the stressed syllable: the first to the left of it. In principle, it can be the only pre-shock: not-here [n’iz’d’e’shn’ii].

(uncovered syllable)+(2-3 pre-stressed syllable)+ 1st pre-stressed syllable ← Stressed syllable → over-stressed syllable (+2/3 over-stressed syllable)

• vper-re -di [fp’ir’i d’i´];
• e -ste-ste-st-no [yi s’t’e´s’t’v’in:a];

Any other pre-stressed syllables and all post-stressed syllables during sound analysis are classified as reduction of the 2nd degree. It is also called a “weak position of the second degree.”

• kiss [pa-tsy-la-va´t’];
• model [ma-dy-l’i´-ra-vat’];
• swallow [la´-sta -ch’ka];
• kerosene [k'i-ra-s'i´-na-vy].

The reduction of vowels in a weak position also differs in stages: second, third (after hard and soft consonants - this is outside the curriculum): learn [uch'i´ts:a], become numb [atsyp'in'e´t '], hope [nad'e´zhda]. During letter analysis, the reduction of the vowel in the weak position in the final open syllable (= at the absolute end of the word) will appear very slightly:

• cup;
• goddess;
• with songs;
• turn.

Sound-letter analysis: iotized sounds

Phonetically, the letters E - [ye], Yo - [yo], Yu - [yu], Ya - [ya] often mean two sounds at once. Have you noticed that in all the indicated cases the additional phoneme is “Y”? That is why these vowels are called iotized. The meaning of the letters E, E, Yu, I is determined by their positional position.

When analyzed phonetically, the vowels e, e, yu, i form 2 sounds:

◊ Yo - [yo], Yu - [yu], E - [ye], I - [ya] in cases where there are:

• At the beginning of the words “Yo” and “Yu” are always:
  • - shudder [yo´ zhyts:a], Christmas tree [yo´ lach’nyy], hedgehog [yo´ zhyk], container [yo´ mcast’];
  • - jeweler [yuv ’il’i´r], top [yu la´], skirt [yu´ pka], Jupiter [yu p’i´t’ir], nimbleness [yu ´rkas’t’];
• at the beginning of the words “E” and “I” only under stress*:
  • - spruce [ye´ l’], travel [ye´ w:u], huntsman [ye´ g’ir’], eunuch [ye´ vnukh];
  • - yacht [ya´ hta], anchor [ya´ kar’], yaki [ya´ ki], apple [ya´ blaka];
  • (*to perform sound-letter analysis of the unstressed vowels “E” and “I”, a different phonetic transcription is used, see below);
• in the position immediately after the vowel “Yo” and “Yu” always. But “E” and “I” are in stressed and unstressed syllables, except in cases where these letters are located after a vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable or in the 1st, 2nd unstressed syllable in the middle of words. Phonetic analysis online and examples in specified cases:
  • - receiver [pr’iyo´mn’ik], sings t [payo´t], klyyo t [kl’uyo ´t];
  • -ayu rveda [ayu r’v’e´da], I sing t [payu ´t], melt [ta´yu t], cabin [kayu ´ta],
• after the dividing solid “Ъ” the sign “Ё” and “Yu” - always, and “E” and “I” only under stress or at the absolute end of the word: - volume [ab yo´m], shooting [syo´mka], adjutant [adyu "ta´nt]
• after the dividing soft “b” the sign “Ё” and “Yu” is always, and “E” and “I” are under stress or at the absolute end of the word: - interview [intyrv'yu´], trees [d'ir'e´ v'ya], friends [druz'ya´], brothers [bra´t'ya], monkey [ab'iz'ya´ na], blizzard [v'yu´ ga], family [s'em'ya´ ]

As you can see, in the phonemic system of the Russian language, stress is of decisive importance. Vowels in unstressed syllables undergo the greatest reduction. Let's continue the sound-letter analysis of the remaining iotized ones and see how they can still change characteristics depending on the environment in the words.

◊ Unstressed vowels“E” and “I” designate two sounds and in phonetic transcription and are written as [YI]:

• at the very beginning of the word:
  • - unity [yi d'in'e´n'i'ye], spruce [yil´vyy], blackberry [yizhiv'i´ka], him [yivo´], fidget [yigaza´], Yenisei [yin'is 'e´y], Egypt [yig'i´p'it];
  • - January [yi nvarskiy], core [yidro´], sting [yiz'v'i´t'], label [yirly´k], Japan [yipo´n'iya], lamb [yign'o´nak ];
  • (The only exceptions are rare foreign word forms and names: Caucasoid [ye vrap'io´idnaya], Evgeniy [ye] vgeny, European [ye vrap'e´yits], diocese [ye] pa´rkhiya, etc.).
• immediately after a vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable or in the 1st, 2nd post-stressed syllable, except for the location at the absolute end of the word.
  • in a timely manner [svai vr'e´m'ina], trains [payi zda´], let's eat [payi d'i´m], run into [nayi w:a´t'], Belgian [b'il'g'i´ yi c], students [uch'a´sh'iyi s'a], with sentences [pr'idlazhe´n'iyi m'i], vanity [suyi ta´],
  • bark [la´yi t'], pendulum [ma´yi tn'ik], hare [za´yi c], belt [po´yi s], declare [zayi v'i´t'], show [prayi in 'l'u´]
• after the dividing hard “Ъ” or soft “b” sign: - intoxicating [p'yi n'i´t], express [izyi v'i´t'], announcement [abyi vl'e´n'iye], edible [syi dobny].

Note: The St. Petersburg phonological school is characterized by “ecane”, and the Moscow school is characterized by “hiccup”. Previously, the iotrated “Yo” was pronounced with a more accented “Ye”. When changing capitals, performing sound-letter analysis, they adhere to Moscow norms in orthoepy.

Some people in fluent speech pronounce the vowel “I” the same way in syllables with a strong and weak position. This pronunciation is considered a dialect and is not literary. Remember, the vowel “I” under stress and without stress is voiced differently: fair [ya ´marka], but egg [yi ytso´].

Important:

The letter “I” after the soft sign “b” also represents 2 sounds - [YI] in sound-letter analysis. (This rule is relevant for syllables in both strong and weak positions). Let's conduct a sample of online sound-letter analysis: - nightingales [salav'yi´], on chicken legs [na ku´r'yi' x" no´shkah], rabbit [kro´l'ich'yi], no family [s'im 'yi´], judges [su´d'yi], draws [n'ich'yi´], streams [ruch'yi´], foxes [li´s'yi]. But: Vowel “O” after a soft sign “b” is transcribed as an apostrophe of softness ['] of the preceding consonant and [O], although when pronouncing the phoneme, iotization can be heard: broth [bul'o´n], pavilion n [pav'il'o´n], similarly: postman n , champignon n, chignon n, companion n, medallion n, battalion n, guillot tina, carmagno la, mignon n and others.

Phonetic analysis of words, when the vowels “Yu” “E” “E” “I” form 1 sound

According to the rules of phonetics of the Russian language, at a certain position in words, the designated letters give one sound when:

• sound units “Yo” “Yu” “E” are under stress after an unpaired consonant in hardness: zh, sh, ts. Then they represent phonemes:
  • ё - [o],
  • e - [e],
  • yu - [y].
  Examples of online analysis by sounds: yellow [zho´ lty], silk [sho´ lk], whole [tse´ ly], recipe [r'itse´ pt], pearls [zhe´ mch'uk], six [she´ st '], hornet [she'rshen'], parachute [parashu't];
• The letters “I” “Yu” “E” “E” and “I” indicate the softness of the preceding consonant [’]. Exception only for: [f], [w], [c]. In such cases in a striking position they form one vowel sound:
  • ё – [o]: ticket [put'o´ fka], easy [l'o´ hk'iy], honey fungus [ap'o´ nak], actor [akt'o´ r], child [r'ib' o´nak];
  • e – [e]: seal [t’ul’e´ n’], mirror [z’e’ rkala], smarter [umn’e´ ye], conveyor [kanv’e´ yir];
  • I – [a]: kittens [kat'a´ ta], softly [m'a´ hka], oath [kl'a´ tva], took [vz'a´ l], mattress [t'u f'a ´ k], swan [l'ib'a´ zhy];
  • yu – [y]: beak [kl'u´ f], people [l'u´ d'am], gateway [shl'u´ s], tulle [t'u´ l'], suit [kas't 'mind].
  • Note: in words borrowed from other languages, the stressed vowel “E” does not always signal the softness of the previous consonant. This positional softening ceased to be a mandatory norm in Russian phonetics only in the 20th century. In such cases, when you do a phonetic analysis of the composition, such a vowel sound is transcribed as [e] without a preceding apostrophe of softness: hotel [ate´ l'], strap [br'ite´ l'ka], test [te´ st] , tennis [te´ n:is], cafe [cafe´], puree [p'ure´], amber [ambre´], delta [de´ l'ta], tender [te´ nder], masterpiece [shede´ vr], tablet [table´ t].
• Attention! After soft consonants in prestressed syllables the vowels “E” and “I” undergo qualitative reduction and are transformed into the sound [i] (except for [ts], [zh], [sh]). Examples of phonetic analysis of words with similar phonemes: - grain [z'i rno´], earth [z'i ml'a´], cheerful [v'i s'o´ly], ringing [z'v 'i n'i´t], forest [l'i sno´y], blizzard [m'i t'e´l'itsa], feather [p'i ro´], brought [pr' in'i sla´], knit [v'i za´t'], lie [l'i ga´t'], five grater [p'i t'o´rka]

Phonetic analysis: consonants of the Russian language

There is an absolute majority of consonants in the Russian language. When pronouncing a consonant sound, the air flow encounters obstacles. They are formed by organs of articulation: teeth, tongue, palate, vibrations of the vocal cords, lips. Due to this, noise, hissing, whistling or ringing appears in the voice.

How many consonants are there in Russian speech?

In the alphabet they are designated by 21 letters. However, when performing sound-letter analysis, you will find that in Russian phonetics consonant sounds more, namely 36.

Sound-letter analysis: what are the consonant sounds?

In our language there are consonants:

• hard - soft and form the corresponding pairs:
  • [b] - [b’]: b anan - b tree,
  • [in] - [in’]: in height - in yun,
  • [g] - [g’]: city - duke,
  • [d] - [d’]: dacha - dolphin,
  • [z] - [z’]: z von - z ether,
  • [k] - [k’]: k onfeta - to enguru,
  • [l] - [l’]: boat - l lux,
  • [m] - [m’]: magic - dreams,
  • [n] - [n’]: new - nectar,
  • [p] - [p’]: p alma- p yosik,
  • [r] - [r’]: daisy - row of poison,
  • [s] - [s’]: with uvenir - with urpriz,
  • [t] - [t’]: tuchka - t ulpan,
  • [f] - [f’]: f lag - f February,
  • [x] - [x’]: x orek - x seeker.
• Certain consonants do not have a hard-soft pair. Unpaired ones include:
  • sounds [zh], [ts], [sh] - always hard (zhzn, tsikl, mouse);
  • [ch’], [sch’] and [th’] are always soft (daughter, more often than not, yours).
• The sounds [zh], [ch’], [sh], [sh’] in our language are called hissing.

A consonant can be voiced - voiceless, as well as sonorous and noisy.

You can determine the voicedness-voicelessness or sonority of a consonant by the degree of noise-voice. These characteristics will vary depending on the method of formation and the participation of the organs of articulation.

• Sonorant (l, m, n, r, y) are the most sonorous phonemes, in them a maximum of voices and a few noises are heard: l ev, rai, n o l.
• If, when pronouncing a word during sound parsing, both a voice and noise are formed, it means that you have a voiced consonant (g, b, z, etc.): plant, b people, life.
• When pronouncing voiceless consonants (p, s, t and others), the vocal cords do not tense, only noise is made: st opka, fishka, k ost yum, tsirk, sew up.

Note: In phonetics, consonant sound units also have a division according to the nature of formation: stop (b, p, d, t) - gap (zh, w, z, s) and method of articulation: labiolabial (b, p, m) , labiodental (f, v), anterior lingual (t, d, z, s, c, g, w, sch, h, n, l, r), midlingual (th), posterior lingual (k, g, x) . The names are given based on the organs of articulation that are involved in sound production.

Tip: If you're just starting to practice spelling words phonetically, try placing your hands on your ears and saying the phoneme. If you were able to hear a voice, then the sound being studied is a voiced consonant, but if noise is heard, then it is voiceless.

Hint: For associative communication, remember the phrases: “Oh, we didn’t forget our friend.” - this sentence contains absolutely the entire set of voiced consonants (excluding softness-hardness pairs). “Styopka, do you want to eat some soup? - Fi! - similarly, the indicated replicas contain a set of all voiceless consonants.

Positional changes of consonants in Russian

The consonant sound, just like the vowel, undergoes changes. The same letter phonetically can represent a different sound, depending on the position it occupies. In the flow of speech, the sound of one consonant is compared to the articulation of a consonant located next to it. This effect makes pronunciation easier and is called assimilation in phonetics.

Positional stun/voicing

In a certain position for consonants, the phonetic law of assimilation according to deafness and voicedness applies. The voiced paired consonant is replaced by a voiceless one:

• at the absolute end of a phonetic word: but [no´sh], snow [s’n’e´k], garden [agaro´t], club [klu´p];
• before voiceless consonants: forget-me-not a [n’izabu´t ka], obkh vatit [apkh vat’i´t’], Tuesday [ft o´rn’ik], tube a [corpse a].
• doing a sound-letter analysis online, you will notice that the voiceless paired consonant standing before the voiced one (except for [th'], [v] - [v'], [l] - [l'], [m] - [m'] , [n] - [n'], [r] - [r']) is also voiced, that is, replaced by its voiced pair: surrender [zda´ch'a], mowing [kaz'ba´], threshing [malad 'ba´], request [pro´z'ba], guess [adgada´t'].

In Russian phonetics, a voiceless noisy consonant does not combine with a subsequent voiced noisy consonant, except for the sounds [v] - [v’]: whipped cream. In this case, the transcription of both the phoneme [z] and [s] is equally acceptable.

When parsing the sounds of words: total, today, today, etc., the letter “G” is replaced by the phoneme [v].

According to the rules of sound-letter analysis, in the endings “-ого”, “-го” of adjectives, participles and pronouns, the consonant “G” is transcribed as the sound [в]: red [kra´snava], blue [s'i´n'iva] , white [b'e´lava], sharp, full, former, that, that, whom. If, after assimilation, two consonants of the same type are formed, they merge. In the school curriculum on phonetics, this process is called consonant contraction: separate [ad:'il'i´t'] → the letters “T” and “D” are reduced into sounds [d'd'], besh smart [b'ish: u ´much]. When analyzing the composition of a number of words in sound-letter analysis, dissimilation is observed - the opposite process to assimilation. In this case, the common feature of two adjacent consonants changes: the combination “GK” sounds like [xk] (instead of the standard [kk]): light [l'o′kh'k'ii], soft [m'a′kh' k'ii].

Soft consonants in Russian

In the phonetic parsing scheme, an apostrophe [’] is used to indicate the softness of consonants.

• Softening of paired hard consonants occurs before “b”;
• the softness of the consonant sound in a syllable in writing will help determine the vowel letter that follows it (e, ё, i, yu, i);
• [ш'], [ч'] and [й] are only soft by default;
• The sound [n] is always softened before soft consonants “Z”, “S”, “D”, “T”: claim [pr'iten'z 'iya], review [r'itseen'z 'iya], pension [pen 's' iya], ve[n'z'] el, licé[n'z'] iya, ka[n'd'] idat, ba[n'd'] it, i[n'd'] ivid , blo[n'd']in, stipe[n'd']iya, ba[n't']ik, vi[n't']ik, zo[n't']ik, ve[n' t'] il, a[n't'] ical, co[n't'] text, remo[n't'] edit;
• the letters “N”, “K”, “P” during phonetic analysis of their composition can be softened before the soft sounds [ch'], [sch']: glass ik [staka'n'ch'ik], smenschik ik [sm'e ′n'sch'ik], donch ik [po'n'ch'ik], masonry ik [kam'e'n'sch'ik], boulevard [bul'va'r'sh'ina], borscht [ borsch'];
• often the sounds [з], [с], [р], [н] before a soft consonant undergo assimilation in terms of hardness-softness: wall [s't'e′nka], life [zhyz'n'], here [ z'd'es'];
• in order to correctly perform sound-letter analysis, take into account the exception words when the consonant [p] before soft teeth and labials, as well as before [ch’], [sch’] is pronounced firmly: artel, feed, cornet, samovar;

Note: the letter “b” after a consonant unpaired in hardness/softness in some word forms performs only a grammatical function and does not impose a phonetic load: study, night, mouse, rye, etc. In such words, during letter analysis, a [-] dash is placed in square brackets opposite the letter “b”.

Positional changes in paired voiced-voiceless consonants before hissing consonants and their transcription during sound-letter parsing

To determine the number of sounds in a word, it is necessary to take into account their positional changes. Paired voiced-voiceless: [d-t] or [z-s] before sibilants (zh, sh, shch, h) are phonetically replaced by a sibilant consonant.

• Literal analysis and examples of words with hissing sounds: arrival [pr'ie'zhzh ii], ascend [vashsh e´st'iye], izzh elta [i´zh elta], take pity [zh a´l'its: A].

The phenomenon when two different letters are pronounced as one is called complete assimilation in all respects. When performing sound-letter analysis of a word, you must denote one of the repeated sounds in the transcription with the longitude symbol [:].

• Letter combinations with a hissing “szh” - “zzh” are pronounced like a double hard consonant [zh:], and “ssh” - “zsh” - like [sh:]: squeezed, sewed, without a splint, climbed in.
• The combinations “zzh”, “zhzh” inside the root, when parsed by letters and sounds, are written in transcription as a long consonant [zh:]: I ride, I squeal, later, reins, yeast, zhzhenka.
• The combinations “sch”, “zch” at the junction of a root and a suffix/prefix are pronounced as a long soft [sch’:]: account [sch’: o´t], scribe, customer.
• At the junction of the preposition with the following word in place of “sch”, “zch” is transcribed as [sch'ch']: without number [b'esh' ch' isla´], with something [sch'ch' e'mta] .
• During sound-letter analysis, the combinations “tch”, “dch” at the junction of morphemes are defined as double soft [ch':]: pilot [l'o´ch': ik], good fellow [little-ch': ik], report [ach': o´t].

Cheat sheet for comparing consonant sounds by place of formation

• sch → [sch':]: happiness [sch': a´s't'ye], sandstone [p'ish': a´n'ik], peddler [vari´sch': ik], paving stones, calculations, exhaust, clear;
• zch → [sch’:]: carver [r’e’sch’: ik], loader [gru’sch’: ik], storyteller [raska’sch’: ik];
• zhch → [sch’:]: defector [p’ir’ibe´ sch’: ik], man [musch’: i´na];
• shch → [sch’:]: freckled [in’isnu’sch’: ity];
• stch → [sch’:]: tougher [zho’sch’: e], biting, rigger;
• zdch → [sch’:]: roundabout [abye’sch’: ik], furrowed [baro’sch’: ity];
• ssch → [sch’:]: split [rasch’: ip’i′t’], became generous [rasch’: e’dr’ils’a];
• thsch → [ch'sch']: to split off [ach'sch' ip'i′t'], to snap off [ach'sch' o´lk'ivat'], in vain [ch'sch' etna], carefully [ch' sch' at'el'na];
• tch → [ch’:]: report [ach’: o′t], fatherland [ach’: i′zna], ciliated [r’is’n’i′ch’: i′ty];
• dch → [ch’:]: emphasize [pach’: o’rk’ivat’], stepdaughter [pach’: ir’itsa];
• szh → [zh:]: compress [zh: a´t’];
• zzh → [zh:]: get rid of [izh: y´t’], kindle [ro´zh: yk], leave [uyizh: a´t’];
• ssh → [sh:]: brought [pr’in’o′sh: y], embroidered [rash: y’ty];
• zsh → [sh:]: lower [n’ish: s′y]
• th → [pcs], in word forms with “what” and its derivatives, doing a sound-letter analysis, we write [pcs]: so that [pcs] , for nothing [n'e′ zasht a], something [ sht o n'ibut'], something;
• th → [h't] in other cases of letter parsing: dreamer [m'ich't a´t'il'], mail [po´ch't a], preference [pr'itpach't 'e´n' ie] etc;
• chn → [shn] in exception words: of course [kan'e´shn a′], boring [sku´shn a′], bakery, laundry, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, mustard plaster, rag, as well as in female patronymics ending in “-ichna”: Ilyinichna, Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, etc.;
• chn → [ch'n] - letter analysis for all other options: fabulous [ska´zach'n y], dacha [da´ch'n y], strawberry [z'im'l'in'i´ch'n y], wake up, cloudy, sunny, etc.;
• !zhd → in place of the letter combination “zhd”, double pronunciation and transcription [sch’] or [sht’] is allowed in the word rain and in the word forms derived from it: rainy, rainy.

Unpronounceable consonants in Russian words

During the pronunciation of an entire phonetic word with a chain of many different consonant letters, one or another sound may be lost. As a result, in the spelling of words there are letters devoid of sound meaning, the so-called unpronounceable consonants. To correctly perform phonetic analysis online, the unpronounceable consonant is not displayed in the transcription. The number of sounds in such phonetic words will be less than letters.

In Russian phonetics, unpronounceable consonants include:

• "T" - in combinations:
  • stn → [sn]: local [m’e´sn y], reed [tras’n ’i´k]. By analogy, one can perform a phonetic analysis of the words staircase, honest, famous, joyful, sad, participant, messenger, rainy, furious and others;
  • stl → [sl]: happy [sh':asl 'i´vyy"], happy, conscientious, boastful (exception words: bony and postlat, in them the letter “T” is pronounced);
  • ntsk → [nsk]: gigantic [g'iga´nsk 'ii], agency, presidential;
  • sts → [s:]: sixs from [shes: o´t], to eat up [take´s: a], to swear I [kl’a´s: a];
  • sts → [s:]: tourist [tur'i´s: k'iy], maximalist cue [max'imal'i´s: k'iy], racist cue [ras'i´s: k'iy] , bestseller, propaganda, expressionist, Hindu, careerist;
  • ntg → [ng]: x-ray en [r’eng ’e´n];
  • “–tsya”, “–tsya” → [ts:] in verb endings: smile [smile´ts: a], wash [my´ts: a], looks, will do, bow, shave, fit;
  • ts → [ts] for adjectives in combinations at the junction of a root and a suffix: childish [d’e´ts k’ii], bratskiy [bratskyi];
  • ts → [ts:] / [tss]: athlete [sparts: m’e´n], send [atss yla´t’];
  • tts → [ts:] at the junction of morphemes during phonetic analysis online is written as a long “ts”: bratz a [bra´ts: a], father epit [ats: yp'i´t'], to father u [k atz: y´];
• “D” - when parsing by sounds in the following letter combinations:
  • zdn → [zn]: late [z'n'y], star [z'v'ozn'y], holiday [pra'z'n'ik], free [b'izvazm' e′know];
  • ndsh → [nsh]: mundsh tuk [munsh tu´k], landsh aft [lansh a´ft];
  • NDsk → [NSK]: Dutch [Galansk ’ii], Thai [Thailansk ’ii], Norman [Narmansk ’ii];
  • zdts → [ss]: under the bridles [fall uss s´];
  • ndc → [nts]: Dutch [galans];
  • rdc → [rts]: heart [s’e´rts e], serdts evin [s’irts yv’i´na];
  • rdch → [rch"]: heart ishko [s’erch ’i´shka];
  • dts → [ts:] at the junction of morphemes, less often in roots, are pronounced and when parsed soundly, the word is written as double [ts]: pick up [pats: yp'i´t'], twenty [dva´ts: yt'] ;
  • ds → [ts]: factory [zavac ko´y], rods tvo [rac tvo´], means [sr’e´ts tva], Kislovods k [k’islavo´ts k];
• “L” - in combinations:
  • sun → [nz]: sun [so´nts e], solar state;
• “B” - in combinations:
  • vstv → [stv] literal analysis of words: hello [hello, go away], feelings about [ch's'tva], sensuality [ch'us'tv 'inas't'], pampering about [pampering o´], virgin [d'e´stv 'in:y].

Note: In some words of the Russian language, when there is a cluster of consonant sounds “stk”, “ntk”, “zdk”, “ndk” the loss of the phoneme [t] is not allowed: trip [payestka], daughter-in-law, typist, summons, laboratory assistant, student , patient, bulky, Irish, Scottish.

• When parsing letters, two identical letters immediately after the stressed vowel are transcribed as a single sound and a longitude symbol [:]: class, bath, mass, group, program.
• Doubled consonants in pre-stressed syllables are indicated in transcription and pronounced as one sound: tunnel [tane´l’], terrace, apparatus.

If you find it difficult to perform phonetic analysis of a word online according to the indicated rules, or you have an ambiguous analysis of the word being studied, use the help of a reference dictionary. Literary norms of orthoepy are regulated by the publication: “Russian literary pronunciation and stress. Dictionary - reference book." M. 1959

References:

• Litnevskaya E.I. Russian language: short theoretical course for schoolchildren. – MSU, M.: 2000
• Panov M.V. Russian phonetics. – Enlightenment, M.: 1967
• Beshenkova E.V., Ivanova O.E. Rules of Russian spelling with comments.
• Tutorial. – “Institute for Advanced Training of Education Workers”, Tambov: 2012
• Rosenthal D.E., Dzhandzhakova E.V., Kabanova N.P. Handbook of spelling, pronunciation, literary editing. Russian literary pronunciation. – M.: CheRo, 1999

Now you know how to parse a word into sounds, make a sound-letter analysis of each syllable and determine their number. The described rules explain the laws of phonetics in the school curriculum format. They will help you phonetically characterize any letter.