Creation of the foundations of the modern Russian literary language. Formation of the literary Russian language. How the literary language developed in ancient Russia

The history of the Russian literary language is a section of Russian studies that studies the emergence, formation, historical transformations of the structure of the literary language, the correlative relations of its constituent system components - styles, both linguistic and functional-speech and individual-author's, etc., the development of writing-book and oral -spoken forms of the literary language. The theoretical basis of the discipline is a complex and versatile (historical-cultural, historical-literary, historical-poetic and historical-linguistic) approach to the study of the structure of literature. language, its norms at different stages of historical development. The concept of the history of the Russian literary language as a scientific discipline was developed by V.V. Vinogradov and adopted by modern Russian linguistics. She replaced the approach that previously existed in science, which was a commentary on Russian. lit. language of the 18-19 centuries. with a collection of heterogeneous phonetic-morphological and derivational facts against the background of understanding language as a tool of Rus. culture (works by E. F. Buddha).

In Russian. philology of the 19th century. there were four historical and linguistic concepts of the emergence and development of the ancient Russian literary language. 1. The Church Slavonic language and the ancient Russian folk literary language are styles of the same "Slavonic", or old Russian literary language (A.S. Shishkov, P.A.Katenin, etc.). 2. The Church Slavonic (or Old Slavic) language (the language of church books) and the language of the Old Russian business and secular writing are different, albeit closely related languages, which were in close interaction and confusion to the end. 18 - early. 19th centuries (A. X. Vostokov, partly K. F. Kalaydovich, M. T. Kachenovsky and others).

3. The Old Russian literary language is based on the Church Slavonic language (M. A. Maksimovich, K. S. Aksakov, partly N. I. Nadezhdin, etc.). According to Maksimovich, “the Church Slavonic language not only gave education to the written language Russian ..., but more than all other languages participated 163 in the further formation of our national language” (“History of Ancient Russian Literature”, 1839). 4. The basis of dr.-rus. lit. language - a living East Slavic folk speech, close in its main structural features to the Old Slavic language. Having adopted Christianity, Rus. the people "have already found all the books necessary for divine services and for teaching in faith, in a dialect that differs very little from its popular dialect"; “Not only in genuine works of Russian. scribes, but also in translations, the older they are, the more we see nationalities in the expression of thoughts and images "(I. Sreznevsky," Thoughts on the history of the Russian language and other Slavic dialects ", 1887). The division of the book and folk language, caused by changes in the folk-colloquial, dialectal speech of the Eastern Slavs, dates back to the 13-14 centuries. This led to the fact that the development of the ancient Russian literary language was determined by the ratio of two speech elements - written common Slavic (Old Slavic, ancient Slavic) and oral and written national ancient Russian. The following periods are distinguished in the development of the Russian literary language: the literary language of Ancient Rus (from the 10th to the end of the 14th - the beginning of the 15th centuries); the literary language of Muscovite Rus (from the late 14th - early 15th centuries to the second half of the 17th century); literary language of the initial era of the formation of Rus. nations (from the middle of the 17th century to the 80-90s of the 18th century); the literary language of the era of the formation of the Russian nation and the formation of its national norms (from the end of the 18th century); Russian literary language of the modern era. The spread and development of writing and literature in Russia begins after the adoption of Christianity (988), i.e. from the end. 10 c. The oldest written monuments are translations from the Greek language (the Gospel, the Apostle, the Psalter ...) Ancient Russian authors created during this period original works in the genres of preaching literature (The Words and Teachings of Metropolitan Hilarion, Cyril of Turovsky, Luke Zhidyaty, Clement Smolyatich), pilgrimage literature ("The Walking of Hegumen Daniel"), etc. The basis of the book-Slavic type of language was the Old Slavic language. During this period of its history, ancient Russian literature also cultivated narrative, historical and folk-artistic genres, the emergence of which is associated with the development of the folk-cultural or folk processed type of the ancient Russian literary language. These are "The Tale of Bygone Years" (12th century) - an ancient Russian chronicle, the epic work "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" (late 12th century), "The Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh" (12th century) - an example of "secular, hagiographic" genre, "The Prayer of Daniel the Zatochnik" (12th century), "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" (late 13th - early 14th centuries). A special group of vocabulary of the Old Russian language is made up of Old Slavic words, related to the corresponding Russian ones, differing in sound appearance: breg (cf. shore), vlas (cf. hair), gates (cf. gate), chapter (cf. head), tree (cf. tree), srachitsa (cf. shirt), keep (cf. bury), single (cf. one), etc. In the Old Russian language, a number of purely lexical parallels are also distinguished, for example, marriage and wedding; neck and neck; to burst and go; verb, speak and say, speak; lanita and cheek; eyes and eyes; percy and chest; mouth and lips; forehead and forehead, etc. The presence of such lexical pairs enriched the literary language functionally, semantically and stylistically. The Old Russian literary language inherited from the Old Slavic language the means of artistic depiction: epithets, comparisons, metaphors, antitheses, gradations, etc. By the middle of the 12th century. Kievan Rus falls into decay, a period of feudal fragmentation begins, which contributed to the dialectal fragmentation of the ancient Russian language. From about the 14th century. on the East Slavic territory there are closely related East Slavic languages: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian. The Russian language of the Moscow State era (14-17 centuries) had a complex history. The main dialect zones were formed - the Northern Velikorussian dialect (approximately north of the Pskov - Tver - Moscow line, south of Nizhny Novgorod) and the South Velikorussian dialect (up to the borders with the Ukrainian zone in the south and Belarusian in the west). Since the end of the 14th century. in Moscow, the glories and church books are being edited to bring them into their original form, corresponding to the Greek originals. This editing was carried out under the leadership of Metropolitan Cyprian and was supposed to bring the Russian script closer to the South Slavic one. In the 15th century. Rus. the Orthodox Church comes out from under the tutelage of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, the patriarchate is established in it 1589). The rise of Muscovite Rus begins, the authority of the grand-princely power and washes, the church grows, the idea of the continuity of Moscow in relation to Byzantium is widespread, which found its expression in the ideological formula "Moscow is the third Rome, and the fourth does not exist", which receives a theological, state-legal and historical and cultural understanding. In the book-Slavic type of literary language, archaized spellings based on the South Slavic orthographic norm are spreading, a special rhetorical manner of expression arises, flowery, magnificent, saturated with metaphors, called "curling of words" ("weaving of words").

From the 17th century. the language of Russian science and the national literary language are formed. There is a growing tendency towards inner unity, towards convergence of lit. language with spoken. In the 2nd floor. 16th century in the Moscow state, book printing began, which was of great importance for the fate of Russian. lit. language, literature, culture and education. The handwritten culture was replaced by the culture of writing. In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed. The Church Slavonic alphabet (Cyrillic) is used only for confessional purposes. In the literary language of the end of the 17th-1st floor. 18th century closely intertwined and interact book-Slavic, often even archaic, lexical and grammatical elements, words and turns of speech of the folk-colloquial and "command" ("business") character and Western European borrowings.

Russian language dialects of the Russian language Portal: Russian language

History of the Russian literary language- the formation and transformation of the Russian language used in literary works. The oldest surviving literary monuments date back to the 11th century. In the 18th-19th centuries, this process took place against the background of the opposition of the Russian language, which the people spoke, to French, the language of the nobles. The classics of Russian literature actively explored the possibilities of the Russian language and were innovators of many linguistic forms. They emphasized the richness of the Russian language and often pointed to its advantages over foreign languages. On the basis of such comparisons, disputes have repeatedly arisen, for example, disputes between Westernizers and Slavophiles. In Soviet times, it was emphasized that the Russian language was the language of the builders of communism, and during the era of Stalin's rule, a campaign was carried out to combat cosmopolitanism in literature. The transformation of the Russian literary language continues at the present time.

Folklore

Oral folk art (folklore) in the form of fairy tales, epics, proverbs and sayings is rooted in distant history. They were passed from mouth to mouth, their content was polished in such a way that the most stable combinations remained, and linguistic forms were updated as the language developed. Oral creativity continued to exist even after the advent of writing. In the New Time, worker and city folk, as well as army and thug (prison camp) were added to the peasant folklore. At present, oral folklore is most expressed in anecdotes. Oral folk art also affects the written literary language.

Development of the literary language in ancient Russia

The introduction and spread of writing in Russia, which led to the creation of the Russian literary language, is usually associated with Cyril and Methodius.

So, in ancient Novgorod and other cities in the XI-XV centuries, birch bark letters were in use. Most of the surviving birch bark letters are private letters of a business nature, as well as business documents: wills, receipts, deeds of sale, court records. There are also church texts and literary and folklore works (conspiracies, school jokes, riddles, instructions on household chores), educational records (alphabets, warehouses, school exercises, children's drawings and doodles).

Church Slavonic writing, introduced by Cyril and Methodius in 862, was based on the Old Church Slavonic language, which in turn originated from the South Slavic dialects. The literary activity of Cyril and Methodius consisted in the translation of the books of the Holy Scriptures of the New and Old Testaments. The disciples of Cyril and Methodius translated a large number of religious books into Church Slavonic from Greek. Some researchers believe that Cyril and Methodius introduced not the Cyrillic alphabet, but the Glagolite; and the Cyrillic alphabet was developed by their students.

The Church Slavonic language was a book language, not a spoken language, the language of church culture, which spread among many Slavic peoples. Church Slavonic literature spread among the Western Slavs (Moravia), the South Slavs (Bulgaria), in Wallachia, parts of Croatia and the Czech Republic, and, with the adoption of Christianity, in Russia. Since the Church Slavonic language differed from spoken Russian, church texts were changed during correspondence, they were cut into layers. Scribes corrected Church Slavonic words, bringing them closer to Russian. At the same time, they introduced the peculiarities of local dialects.

For the systematization of Church Slavonic texts and the introduction of uniform linguistic norms in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the first grammars were written - the grammar of Lawrence Zizania (1596) and the grammar of Meletii Smotritsky (1619). The process of formation of the Church Slavonic language was mainly completed at the end of the 17th century, when Patriarch Nikon corrected and systematized the liturgical books. Liturgical books of Russian Orthodoxy have become the norm for all Orthodox peoples .

With the spread of Church Slavonic religious texts in Russia, literary works gradually began to appear, which used the writing of Cyril and Methodius. The first such works date back to the end of the 11th century. These are "The Tale of Bygone Years" (1068), "The Legend of Boris and Gleb", "The Life of Theodosius of Pechora", "The Word about Law and Grace" (1051), "The Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh" (1096) and "The Word about Igor's Campaign" (1185-1188). These works are written in a language that is a mixture of Church Slavonic with Old Russian.

Reforms of the Russian literary language of the 18th century

"The beauty, splendor, power and richness of the Russian language is clear enough from the books written in the past, when our ancestors did not know any rules for compositions yet, but they hardly thought that they were or could be", - claimed by Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov

The most important reforms of the Russian literary language and the system of versification of the 18th century were made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. In the city he wrote "A Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry", in which he formulated the principles of new versification in Russian. In a polemic with Trediakovsky, he argued that instead of cultivating poetry written according to schemes borrowed from other languages, it is necessary to use the capabilities of the Russian language. Lomonosov believed that it is possible to write poetry with many types of feet - two-syllable (iambic and trochaic) and three-syllable (dactyl, anapest and amphibrachium), but he considered it wrong to replace the feet with pyrrhic and spondeia. This innovation of Lomonosov sparked a discussion in which Trediakovsky and Sumarokov took an active part. In the city were published three transcriptions of the 143rd Psalm, performed by these authors, and the readers were invited to express which of the texts they consider the best.

It is known, however, that Pushkin said in which Lomonosov's literary activity is not approved: “His odes ... are tiresome and inflated. His influence on literature was harmful and still resonates in it. Pomp, sophistication, disgust from simplicity and accuracy, the absence of any nationality and originality - these are the traces left by Lomonosov. " Belinsky called this view "surprisingly correct, but one-sided." According to Belinsky, “At the time of Lomonosov, we did not need folk poetry; then the great question - to be or not to be - was for us not in nationality, but in Europeanism ... Lomonosov was Peter the Great of our literature. "

In addition to his contribution to poetic language, Lomonosov was also the author of scientific Russian grammar. In this book, he described the wealth and possibilities of the Russian language. Lomonosov's grammar was published 14 times and formed the basis for the course of Russian grammar by Barsov (1771), who was a student of Lomonosov. In this book, Lomonosov, in particular, wrote: “Charles the fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it is decent to speak with Ishpansky with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with women. But if he had been skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would have added to that that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, because he would find in him the splendor of Ishpansky, the liveliness of the French, the strength of the German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, wealth and strong in images the brevity of Greek and Latin. " Interestingly, Derzhavin later expressed himself similarly: "The Slavic-Russian language, according to the testimony of the foreign aesthetics themselves, is not inferior either in courage to Latin or in fluency to Greek, surpassing all European ones: Italian, French and Spanish, if only German."

Modern Russian literary language

Alexander Pushkin is considered the creator of the modern literary language, whose works are considered the pinnacle of Russian literature. This thesis remains dominant, despite the significant changes that have occurred in the language over the nearly two hundred years that have passed since the creation of his largest works, and the clear stylistic differences between the language of Pushkin and contemporary writers.

Meanwhile, the poet himself points to the paramount role of N.M. Karamzin in the formation of the Russian literary language, according to A.S. Pushkin, this glorious historian and writer “freed the language from an alien yoke and returned it freedom, turning it to living sources of folk the words".

"Great, mighty ..."

Turgenev belongs, perhaps, one of the most famous definitions of the Russian language as "great and mighty."

In days of doubt, in days of painful thoughts about the fate of my homeland - you alone are my support and support, oh great, mighty, truthful and free Russian language! If it weren't for you, how not to fall into despair at the sight of everything that is happening at home? But one cannot believe that such a language was not given to a great people!(I. S. Turgenev)

Charles V, the Roman emperor, used to say that Gishpan with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with the female sex. But if he had been skilled in the Russian language, then of course he would have added that it is decent for them to speak with all of them. For I would find in him: great ... ... sky, the strength of the German, the tenderness of the Italian, in addition to the richness and the strong brevity of the Greek and Latin languages in the image.

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Russian language

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See what the "History of the Russian literary language" is in other dictionaries:

- "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" (SSRL; Big Academic Dictionary, BAS) is an academic normative explanatory historical dictionary of the Russian literary language in 17 volumes, published from 1948 to 1965. Reflects ... ... Wikipedia

The history of the Russian literary language, the formation and transformation of the Russian language used in literary works. The oldest surviving literary monuments date back to the 11th century. In *** centuries in Russia spread ... ... Wikipedia

The language of the builders of communism. The change in the norms of the Russian literary language continues at the present time.

Folklore

Development of the literary language in ancient Russia

Reforms of the Russian literary language of the 18th century

Modern Russian literary language

Meanwhile, the poet himself pointed out the paramount role of N.M. Karamzin in the formation of the Russian literary language, according to A.S. Pushkin, this glorious historian and writer “freed the language from an alien yoke and returned it freedom, turning it to living sources of folk the words".

« Great, mighty…»

I. S. Turgenev belongs, perhaps, one of the most famous definitions of the Russian language as "great and mighty":

In days of doubt, in days of painful thoughts about the fate of my homeland - you alone are my support and support, oh great, mighty, truthful and free Russian language! If it weren't for you, how not to fall into despair at the sight of everything that is happening at home? But one cannot believe that such a language was not given to a great people!

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An excerpt characterizing the history of the Russian literary language

- To His Majesty on a mission.
- Here it is! - said Boris, who heard that Rostov needed His Highness instead of His Majesty.
And he pointed out to him the Grand Duke, who was a hundred paces away from them, in a helmet and in a cavalier's tunic, with his raised shoulders and frowned eyebrows, that he was shouting something to the Austrian white and pale officer.
“Why, this is the Grand Duke, but to me to the commander-in-chief or to the sovereign,” Rostov said, and was about to touch the horse.
- Count, Count! - shouted Berg, just as lively as Boris, running up from the other side, - Count, I was wounded in my right hand (he said, showing a bloody hand, tied with a handkerchief) and remained in the front. Count, I hold the sword in my left hand: in our breed the von Bergs, Count, were all knights.
Berg was still saying something, but Rostov, not listening to him, had already gone on.
Having passed the guard and the empty gap, Rostov, in order not to get back into the first line, as he came under the attack of the cavalry guards, drove along the line of reserves, far bypassing the place where the hottest shooting and cannonade were heard. Suddenly, in front of him and behind our troops, in such a place where he could not in any way foresee the enemy, he heard close rifle fire.
"What could it be? - thought Rostov. - An enemy in the rear of our troops? It can't be, thought Rostov, and the horror of fear for himself and for the outcome of the whole battle suddenly came over him. - Whatever it was, however, - he thought, - now there is nothing to go around. I must look for the commander-in-chief here, and if everything perished, then my business is to perish together with everyone. "
The foreboding that suddenly found on Rostov was confirmed more and more, the further he drove into the space occupied by crowds of heterogeneous troops, located behind the village of Prats.
- What's happened? What's happened? Who are they shooting at? Who's Shooting? Asked Rostov, leveling up with the Russian and Austrian soldiers who fled in mixed crowds across his path.
- And the devil knows them? I beat everyone! Lost it all! - Crowds of fleeing people answered him in Russian, German and Czech, and did not understand, just like him, what was going on here.
- Beat the Germans! One shouted.
- And the devil take them - traitors.
- Zum Henker diese Ruesen ... [To hell with these Russians ...] - the German muttered something.
Several wounded were walking along the road. Curses, screams, moans merged into one common hum. The shooting died down and, as Rostov later learned, Russian and Austrian soldiers were shooting at each other.
"Oh my God! what is it? Thought Rostov. - And here, where at any moment the sovereign can see them ... But no, that's right, only a few scoundrels. It will pass, it is not that, it cannot be, he thought. - Just hurry, hurry to pass them! "
The thought of defeat and flight could not enter Rostov's head. Although he saw French guns and troops precisely on Pratsen Hill, on the very one where he was ordered to look for the commander-in-chief, he could not and did not want to believe it.

Near the village of Pratsa, Rostov was ordered to look for Kutuzov and the sovereign. But here not only were they not, but there was not a single commander, and there were heterogeneous crowds of upset troops.
He drove the already tired horse in order to pass these crowds as soon as possible, but the further he went, the more upset the crowds became. On the high road onto which he rode, there were crowds of carriages, carriages of all sorts, Russian and Austrian soldiers, of all branches of the army, wounded and non-wounded. All this hummed and swarmed with mixed sounds under the gloomy sound of flying cannonballs from the French batteries placed on the Prazen Heights.
- Where is the sovereign? where is Kutuzov? Rostov asked everyone he could stop, and he could not get an answer from anyone.
Finally, grabbing the soldier by the collar, he made him answer to himself.
- Eh! brother! They've all been there for a long time, they've fled ahead! - the soldier said to Rostov, laughing at something and struggling to escape.
Leaving this soldier, who was obviously drunk, Rostov stopped the horse of the orderly or the important person's guard and began to question him. The orderly announced to Rostov that the sovereign had been taken at full speed in a carriage along this very road an hour ago, and that the sovereign had been dangerously wounded.
“It can't be,” said Rostov, “right, someone else.
“I saw it myself,” said the orderly with a self-confident grin. - It’s time for me to know the sovereign: it seems, how many times in Petersburg I saw something like that. Pale, pale in the carriage. As soon as he could run up the four crows, my priests, he thundered past us: it’s time, it seems, to know the tsar's horses and Ilya Ivanitch; it seems that Ilya the coachman does not go with the other as with the tsar.
Rostov let his horse go and wanted to ride on. A wounded officer walking past addressed him.
- Who do you want? The officer asked. - The commander-in-chief? So killed by a cannonball, killed in the chest with our regiment.
"Not killed, wounded," corrected another officer.
- Who? Kutuzov? Asked Rostov.
- Not Kutuzov, but what do you mean by him - well, it's all one, not many are left alive. Go over there, over there, to that village, all the authorities have gathered there, ”said this officer, pointing to the village of Gostiradek, and walked past.
Rostov rode at a pace, not knowing why and to whom he was now going. The sovereign is wounded, the battle is lost. It was impossible not to believe it now. Rostov rode in the direction indicated to him and in which the tower and the church could be seen in the distance. Where was he in a hurry? What could he now say to the sovereign or to Kutuzov, if even they were alive and not wounded?
- This road, your honor, go, and here they will kill you, - the soldier shouted to him. - Here they will kill!
- O! what are you saying! said another. - Where will he go? It's closer here.
Rostov became thoughtful and drove exactly in the direction where he was told that they would kill.
"Now it's all the same: if the sovereign is wounded, can I really take care of myself?" he thought. He entered the space where the people fleeing from Prazen died most of all. The French have not yet occupied this place, and the Russians, those who were alive or wounded, left it long ago. On the field, like heaps on good arable land, lay about ten, fifteen killed, wounded on every tithe of the place. The wounded crawled in two, three at a time, and one could hear unpleasant, sometimes feigned, as it seemed to Rostov, their cries and groans. Rostov started the horse at a trot so as not to see all these suffering people, and he became afraid. He was afraid not for his life, but for the courage that he needed and which, he knew, would not stand the sight of these unfortunates.
The French, who had stopped firing at this field, strewn with dead and wounded, because there was no one alive on it, seeing the adjutant riding over it, pointed a gun at him and threw several cannonballs. The feeling of these whistling, terrible sounds and the surrounding dead people merged for Rostov into one impression of horror and self-pity. He remembered his mother's last letter. “What would she feel,” he thought, “if she could see me now here, in this field and with guns pointed at me.”
In the village of Gostiyeradeke there were, although confused, but in a greater order, Russian troops, marching away from the battlefield. The French cannonballs were no longer reaching here, and the sounds of gunfire seemed distant. Everyone here clearly saw and said that the battle was lost. To whom Rostov turned, no one could tell him where the sovereign was, or where Kutuzov was. Some said that the rumor about the sovereign's wound was true, others said that it was not, and explained this false rumor that had actually been rode back from the battlefield in the sovereign's carriage from the battlefield, the pale and frightened chief marshal Count Tolstoy, who rode out with others in the emperor's retinue on the battlefield. One officer told Rostov that beyond the village, to the left, he saw someone from the higher authorities, and Rostov went there, no longer hoping to find anyone, but only in order to clear his conscience before himself. Having traveled three versts and passed the last Russian troops, near a vegetable garden dug in a ditch, Rostov saw two horsemen standing opposite the ditch. One, with a white sultan on his hat, seemed for some reason familiar to Rostov; another, unknown rider, on a beautiful red horse (this horse seemed familiar to Rostov) rode up to the ditch, pushed the horse with his spurs and, releasing the reins, easily jumped over the ditch of the vegetable garden. Only the earth crumbled from the embankment from the horse's hind hooves. Turning the horse abruptly, he again jumped back over the ditch and respectfully addressed the rider with the white sultan, apparently inviting him to do the same. The rider, whose figure seemed familiar to Rostov and for some reason involuntarily riveted his attention to itself, made a negative gesture with his head and hand, and by this gesture Rostov instantly recognized his mourned, adored sovereign.
“But it could not be he, alone in the middle of this empty field,” thought Rostov. At this time, Alexander turned his head, and Rostov saw his favorite features so vividly engraved in his memory. The sovereign was pale, his cheeks were sunken and his eyes were sunken; but the more charm, meekness was in his features. Rostov was happy, convinced that the rumor about the sovereign's wound was unfair. He was happy to have seen him. He knew that he could, even had to directly address him and convey what he was ordered to convey from Dolgorukov.
But as a young man in love trembles and mellows, not daring to say what he dreams of at night, and looks around in fright, looking for help or an opportunity to postpone and escape, when the desired moment has come, and he stands alone with her, so Rostov now, having achieved that , what he desired more than anything else, did not know how to approach the sovereign, and he presented himself with thousands of considerations as to why this was inconvenient, indecent and impossible.
"How! I seem to be glad to take advantage of the fact that he is alone and in despondency. An unknown person may seem unpleasant and hard to him at this moment of sadness; then, what can I tell him now, when at one glance at him my heart stops and my mouth dries up? " None of those innumerable speeches that he, addressing the sovereign, composed in his imagination, did not occur to him now. Those speeches for the most part were kept under completely different conditions, those were spoken most often at the moment of victories and triumphs and mainly on his deathbed from his wounds, while the sovereign thanked him for his heroic deeds, and he, dying, expressed his love confirmed in practice. my.
“Then, what am I going to ask the sovereign about his orders to the right flank, when it’s already 4 pm and the battle is lost? No, I definitely shouldn't drive up to him. Shouldn't disturb his thoughtfulness. It is better to die a thousand times than to get a bad look, a bad opinion from him, ”decided Rostov, and with sadness and despair in his heart he drove away, constantly looking back at the sovereign, who was still in the same position of indecision.
While Rostov made these considerations and sadly drove away from the sovereign, Captain von Toll accidentally ran into the same place and, seeing the sovereign, drove right up to him, offered him his services and helped him cross the ditch on foot. The Emperor, wishing to rest and feeling unwell, sat down under an apple tree, and Tol stopped beside him. Rostov, from afar, saw with envy and repentance how von Toll said something to the emperor for a long time and with ardor, as the emperor, apparently bursting into tears, closed his eyes with his hand and shook Toll's hand.
"And I could be in his place?" thought Rostov to himself, and, barely holding back tears of regret for the fate of the sovereign, in complete despair drove on, not knowing where and why he was now going.
His despair was all the more intense because he felt that his own weakness was the cause of his grief.
He could ... not only could, but he had to drive up to the sovereign. And this was the only time to show the sovereign his loyalty. And he didn't use it ... "What have I done?" he thought. And he turned his horse and galloped back to the place where he saw the emperor; but there was no one beyond the ditch. Only carts and carriages were driving. From one lorry Rostov learned that the Kutuzov headquarters was located nearby in the village where the transports were going. Rostov followed them.
Ahead of him walked the bereader of Kutuzov, leading the horses in blankets. A cart followed behind the keeper, and an old courtyard, in a cap, sheepskin coat, and with crooked legs, followed the cart.

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[Enter text]

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"SIBERIAN STATE GEODESIC ACADEMY"

(FGOU VPO "SGGA")

Abstract in Russian

Topic: The history of the formation of the Russian literary language

NOVOSIBIRSK, 2015

INTRODUCTION

1. DEFINITION OF LITERARY LANGUAGE

2. ORTHODOX LANGUAGE

3. OLD SLAVIC LANGUAGE

4. RUSSIAN NATIONAL LANGUAGE

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

Literary language is the common language of writing of a particular people, and sometimes of several nations - the language of official business documents, school education, written everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form, often written, but sometimes orally. That is why the written-book and oral-colloquial forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical laws.

Only in the era of the existence of developed national languages, especially in a socialist society, the literary language, as the highest standardized type of the common language, gradually replaces dialects and interdialects and becomes, both in oral and written communication, an exponent of a genuine national norm.

The purpose of this work is to study the history of the formation and development of the Russian literary language.

Abstract objectives:

1) analyze the emergence and development of the Russian literary language;

2) consider various approaches to considering the concept of a literary language;

3) highlight the different types and styles of the literary language;

4) consider the sources of studying the history of the language.

The relevance of the topic of the work is largely due to the fact that it is associated with the most important aspect of our life - our native speech. “There is no future without the past,” so a person needs to know the history of the formation of his native language. The entire historical experience of the people is concentrated and represented in the language: the state of the language testifies to the state of the society itself, its culture, its mentality.

1. DEFINITION OF LITERARY LANGUAGE

The highest form of the national Russian language is the literary language. It serves various spheres of human activity - politics, culture, office work, verbal art, everyday communication.

Literary language has two forms - oral and written. The first, as the name implies, is spoken, and the second is graphically designed. Forms differ in the form of implementation, in relation to the addressee and the generation of the form.

When implementing each of the forms of the literary language, the writer or speaker selects words, word combinations, and makes sentences for expressing their thoughts. Depending on what material the speech is built from, it takes on a bookish or colloquial character.

Depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved in the process of communication, there is a selection of various linguistic means. As a result, varieties of a single literary language are created, called functional styles. This means that the varieties of the literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function that the language performs in each specific case. Distinguish: 1) scientific style, 2) official business, 3) journalistic, 4) colloquial everyday.

The fixation of words for a certain style of speech is explained by the fact that the lexical meaning of many words, in addition to the subject-logical content, also includes an emotional coloring.

2. ORTHODOX LANGUAGE

A comparative historical study of Indo-European languages has revealed regular correspondences between their sounds, words and forms. This can be explained by the fact that they are all descendants of one extinct ancient language from which they originated. Such a source language is usually called a proto-language.

In the middle of the 19th century, on the basis of the proto-language theory, a “family tree” scheme was formed, according to which it was believed that all languages of the Indo-European family originated as a result of the successive two-member disintegration of the Indo-European proto-language. This scheme was created by the German scientist A. Schleicher.

One of the branches of this tree is the Proto-Slavic language. This common Slavic ancestor language is conventionally called Proto-Slavic; conditionally because it is not known what the people who spoke this language called themselves in ancient times.

Ha kakom verily etape cvoey life gpyppa evpopeyckix plemen, govopivshix nA dialektax, blizkix dpevnim baltiyckim, ipanckim, balkanckim, gepmanckim, obedinilac in doctatochno ppochny coyuz, within the sequence of kotopogo in techenie dlitelnogo vpemeni ppoicxodilo cblizhenie (nivelipovka, vypavnivanie) dialektov, neobxodimoe for vypabotki vzaimoponimaniya among the members of the fertile union. It is possible to assume that in the first millennium to the present. e. The Indo-European language, which was characterized by characteristics, afterwards known only to the Slavic languages, was already in use, which makes it possible for modern researchers to read

The familiarity of the Slavic language is largely explained by the fact that its historical changes were caused by the usual sounds. The most common of them was the tendency to the syllabic term of speech. At the later stage of the development of the Slavic language, a single type of syllable structure is formed, leading to a variety of existing words in such a way that

The Slavic language existed up to the middle of the l millennium. e., when those who spoke on it, spread on the wide territories of the Central, Bocstochny and South-Bocstochny Europe, start to waste their trouble. Language kazhdoy of obocobivshixcya gpypp plemen ppodolzhal pazvivatcya izolipovanno From dpygix, ppiobpetaya novye zvykovye, gpammaticheckie and lekcicheckie ocobennocti IT'S NORMAL pyt obpazovaniya "podctvennyx" yazykov of edinogo yazyka ictochnika (ppayazyka).

The Slavic languages go back to this source language. An allegorical picture of the "family tree" can also be applied to the Slavic family of languages, which can be generally accepted and even historically justified.

Although the Proto-Slavic language existed for a very long time and no written texts remained of it, nevertheless, researchers have a fairly complete understanding of it. It is known how its sound row developed, its morphology and basic vocabulary are known, which is inherited from Proto-Slavic by all Slavic languages. This knowledge is based on the results of a comparative historical study of the Slavic languages: they allow you to restore the original appearance (preform) of each investigated linguistic fact. The reality of the restored (original) Proto-Slavic form can be verified and refined by the testimony of other Indo-European languages.

The figure shows that the Slavic language tree has three main branches:

East Slavic languages;

West Slavic languages;

South Slavic languages.

These main branches-groups branch, in turn, into smaller ones: for example, the Eastern Slavic branch has three main branches - the languages of the Russian, Ukrainian, White, and the branches of the Russian language have their occult twig ...

If ye zhe nA obpatit vnimanie dalneyshie otvetvleniya xotya would yuzhno-pycckoro napechiya, verily will be played vidno, kak in nem vydelyayutcya vetki-Blocks of cmolenckix, vepxnedneppovckix, vepxnedecninckix, kypcko-oplovckix, pyazanckix, bpyancko-zhizdpinckix, tylckix, eletskix and ockolckix govopov. For them, if you are drawing a picture of an allegorical "parental tree" further, there are also streaks with a lot of leaflets - the heads of separate and new days.

Each of these points is characterized by a few typical linguistic features, from which it is always possible to recognize the severnopyca and the southernopyca. These habits were spread over several centuries, and the beginning of their formation was related to the epoxy of Kiev Pycy.

One of the earliest dialectical phenomena, from which began [the formation of the southern and northern tip of the Russian language], was the sound of the sound of the sound [? lybdkuy, o [?] oh, do [?] a At this if [g] comes first at the end of the word c [k]: no-py [g] a - other [k], but [g] a - but [to ], kpy [g] - ly - kpy [k]), then [?] alternating with [x]: no other [?] a - other [x], by [?] a - but [x], kpy [? ] - left - cpy [x]. A well-known adage: "An old friend is better than two new ones." Boznikla this phrase in the southern Russian environment, where the words other [x] and two [x] make up the exact rhyme.

This phenomenon originated in the XI-XII centuries. somewhere on the Chernigov land, and then penetrated into the middle of the Kiev and Ryazan lands, gradually taking over larger and larger areas. The pronunciation of a slit sound at the site of an explosive [g] is currently not only in the south, but in both Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

The next phenomenon, which had a very important significance in the formation of Russian words, was the acanage. It appeared, as many scientists believe, at the end of the XII - the first half of the XIII century. The initial area of its distribution is the pools of the upper and middle Oka and the middle of the Oka and the Seym, i.e. modern Kypskaya, Oplovskaya, Tylskaya and Ryazanskaya regions. The boom of this phenomenon, gradually spreading to the north, took over the Smolensk and Polotsk lands (in the 14th-15th centuries), then from the place of the winter and occopy In the head of Moscow, the word was confirmed from the 16th century. To the north, the wind continued to be preserved from the border. The border of full water almost everywhere coincides with the border of the north.

Another bright southern slope - the end - e in the parental section of the sole number of the critical 1st declination. This dialectical feature is reflected in the famous saying “We all have bread at the cold house”, which appeared on the southern Russian theory. The peculiarity of this was common in the early days of Moscow. In the first edition of Pyshkin's poem in poems, Onegin says to Lensky:

Olga has no life in the picture

Kak y Bandikova Madonna:

Krygla, red in her face,

How is that dull moon

Ha this stupid skies

In literary language, “y Madonna” is correct, and Pyshkin later changed this line.

But linguistic innovations were spread not only from the south. From the north, there was an intermittent movement of the lingual waves.

If you look at the ancient monuments of the Russian writing of the 11th and 12th centuries, then you can find the main forms; This is what all Russians said at the time. In the XIII century in the Novgorod dialect, the pronunciation of the solid [t] in these forms is born. By the end of the XIV century, this phenomenon also covers the dialects of the Rostov-Suzdal land. New formations also appear in other North Russian regions.

The waves of dialectal phenomena coming from the south and from the north did not stop at the same border. They overlapped this border, resulting in the formation of an area where the southern and northern lines are combined. Therefore, these dialects do not constitute a special dialect, they are Central Russian dialects.

It is natural that such a “pedigree tree” did not grow up at once, that it didn’t grow so much and was divorced, that the main reason for it was that it didn’t grow so much and that it was Yes, and after all, it is not always safe and steady: some branches have left, some have been wrapped around.

The presumed "vetvistic" principle of classification of Slavic languages and dialects refers to the natural Slavic languages and dialects, to the Slavic languages of the Russian language. And if ye pazlichnye vetvi zhivogo clavyanckogo yazykovoro "dpeva" - languages and dialekty - poyavilic cpazy ne, ne verily srazy poyavlyalic obpazovannye nA THEIR ocnove papallelno c them bytyyuschie picmennye, knizhnye, nopmipovannye, vo mnogom ickycstvennye yazykovye cictemy - litepatypnye languages.

3. OLD SLAVONIC LANGUAGE

In the IX century. The first Slavic literary language - Old Slavic - was created by the labor of brothers Kirill and Methodius. It was based on the dialect of the Solyn Slavs, translations from the Greek language of a number of church and other books were made on it, and later on there were written and unrecognized

Ctapoclavyancky language bytoval cnachala in zapadnoclavyanckoy cpede - in Belikoy Mopavii (otcyuda and pyad ppicyschix emy mopavizmov), a zatem pacppoctpanilcya y yuzhnyx clavyan, Where ocobyyu pol in ego pazvitii igpali knizhnye shkoly - Oxpidckaya and Ppeclavckaya. C X century this language also begins to be used in Eastern Slavs, where it was known by the name of the Slavonic language, and the traditional call it Church Slavonic. As the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and itself, in turn, leaves an imprint on the language of the people.

The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavicisms began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.

Several groups can be distinguished in the composition of the Old Slavicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary:

1. words that go back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sound or affix design: gold, night, fisherman, boat;

2. Old Slavicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, Lanita, Persian (compare Russians: finger, lips, cheeks, chest);

3. semantic Old Church Slavonicisms, i.e. common Slavic words that have received a new meaning in the Old Slavonic language associated with Christianity: god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

The ancient Slavic language was an international, inter-Slavic book language until the 18th century. and had a great impact on the history and modern appearance of many Slavic languages, first of all Russian. The Old Slavic monuments have reached us with two systems of writing - the glagolic and the Cyrillic.

In Russia, the Glagolitic alphabet was used only in the first years of the spread of the Slavic alphabet in the oldest cultural centers - Kiev and Novgorod. In those Slavic countries where the influence of Byzantium was strong and the Orthodox religion was widespread, the Glagolitic alphabet was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet (probably after the 11th century or even earlier), which slightly changed its original appearance until the beginning of the 18th century, when it was transformed, and remained only in church books. The Greek statutory uncial (solemn) letter served as an example of the Cyrillic alphabet. The modern Russian alphabet is a modified Cyrillic alphabet.

The history of our people is reflected in the borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.

The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages penetrated into the Russian language as early as the VIII-XII centuries. The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Rus was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (6th century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (9th century), the spread of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.

The later lexical influence of European languages on Russian began to be felt in the 16th-17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the 18th century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the successes of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were the numerous names of then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.

4. RUSSIAN NATIONAL LANGUAGE

Russian literary language dialect

The history of the Russian national language begins in the 17th century. Intensive work is underway to streamline and canonize the norms of the state business command language in parallel with the formation of uniform norms of the common spoken Moscow language.

The creativity of A.S. Pushkin laid the foundation for its highest form - a highly developed literary language with an extensive system of styles. Pushkin began to assimilate and master in poetry various styles of colloquial speech of that time. Colloquial speech was not yet settled, its norms did not exist. The educated nobility, petty bureaucracy and urban philistinism spoke "different languages".

Pushkin's genius consisted in the fact that he was able to master the entire element of the acting language, to choose from it all living things that entered into speech and combine them into an organic whole. The ideal of the language for him is the speech of people "honest, intelligent and educated."

Sorry, the most difficult task that Pyshkin made before was the basics of a large array of speech and popular talk. Without the solution of this problem, it was impossible to fulfill the grandiose Pyshkin plan of creating a single national literary language, with excess colloquial and local linguistics.

Simple - the linguistic language of the predominantly city life: part of the nobility, small and medium dignity, spirituality, intrigue It strongly differed from both the apchaized book language, and from the official speech of the light circle. Pyshkin considered the language of the Moscow city people to be the model of the common vernacular.

On the national dialects, they talked about the cross of different regions of Russia, the farmers, the two, in general - the classes, not covered by the publicity.

Not everything in general was acceptable for Pyshkin, yes, and he, at that time, was a fairly constant phenomenon. Pyshkin, for example, decidedly did not accept the language of "bad societies", ie. the tongue of the hallowed kyptsov and the townspeople, the "general" language, the same as artful and spiteful as the tongue of a lady's budyapa.

Before Pyshkin there was a very diverse linguistic action - the words are conciliatory, professional, general. Cooperate all this, highlight the valuable, merge into a single whole - the titanic work, which required a lot of knowledge and genetic intention.

In a simple language style, he finds several opiintirov: use of words and expressions, their need, and their ability to use some type of language, and All the more as a base he appreciates the folk language, which is combined for him with the language of folk songs, epics and the tale: “Read just what is good, you can write some funny pictures in

While preserving everything that has accumulated a literary tradition by its time, he sees the prospect of the development of a literary language in its connection with space.

Pyshkin called the language the poems given to us for the communication of thoughts. In this era, several streams were united: the literary tradition of the 18th century, the pecuniary community, the city's commonplace, the ancient folklore

Pyshkin's language has become firmly established as a norm and model of the Russian all-round literary language. He left us a great treasure - an orderly and humble mood for the communication of any thoughts and feelings. According to his commandment, the literary language and speaking language are also developed in our time.

In covpemennom clavyanckom mipe cyschectvyet 12 natsionalnyx litepatypnyx yazykov: three voctochnoclavyanckix - english, ykpaincky and belopyccky five zapadnoclavyanckix - polsky, cheshcky, clovatsky, vepxnelyzhitskocepbsky and nizhnelyzhitskocepbcky and chetype yuzhnoslavyanckix - cepbckoxopvatcky, clovencky, bolgapcky and makedoncky.

CONCLUSION

Thus, the vocabulary of the Old Slavonic language is basically Slavic. Therefore, the Old Slavonic language was understandable to all Slavic peoples. Its vocabulary was associated not only with the system of South Slavic languages, but also contained elements of West Slavic languages (Pannonisms and Moravisms) and Old Russian (East Slavicisms).

One of the ways to develop the vocabulary of the Old Slavonic language was to borrow words from non-Slavic languages: Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Germanic, etc. The vocabulary of the Old Slavonic language as a common Slavic cultural source language contributed to the formation of the written languages of all Slavs.

Thus, the goal of the work, which is to study the history of the formation and development of the Russian literary language, has been achieved, and the tasks of the work have been completed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bershtein S.B. An outline of the comparative grammar of the Slavic languages. - M., 1961.S. 52-66.

2. Ivanov V.V. Historical grammar of the Russian language. - M., 1983.S. 50-53.

3. Kamchatnov A.M. Old Slavonic language. - M., 2001.S. 6-11.

4. Sobolevsky A.I. Lectures on the history of the Russian language. - M., 1907.S. 5-18.

5. Filin F.P. Formation of the language of the Eastern Slavs. - M., 1962.S. 20-49, 147-151.

6. Vvedenskaya L.A. Russian language and culture of speech. - Rostov n / a, 2011.S. 5 - 45., 55 - 58.

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The state of the Russian literary language is currently an acute problem for the state, for the entire society. This is due to the fact that the entire historical experience of the people is concentrated and represented in the language: the state of the language testifies to the state of society, its culture, its mentality. Disorder and - vacillation in society, the decline of morality, the loss of characteristic national features - all this affects the language, leading to its decline.

Preserving the language, taking care of its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture. Therefore, every citizen of the Russian Federation, no matter who he works, no matter what position he holds, is responsible for the state of the language of his country, his people.

Of greatest interest for understanding the formation and development of the literary language is the 18th century, when progressive-minded circles of society tried to raise the authority of the Russian language, to prove its viability as the language of science and art.

A special role in the formation of the literary language during this period was played by M.V. Lomonosov. Possessing talent, enormous knowledge, passionately wanting to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he creates the first Russian grammar in Russian, in which he presents the scientific system of the Russian language for the first time, compiles a set of grammatical rules, shows how to take advantage of its richest opportunities.

During this period, the concentration of common language elements is outlined due to the selection of the most common features of the South Russian and North Russian dialects. At the same time, the democratization of the language begins: its lexical composition, grammatical structure in a significant number includes elements of the living oral speech of the urban merchants, service people, lower clergy, literate peasants.

Along with democratization, the language begins to gradually free itself from the influence of the Church Slavonic language.

In the 17th century, there is a renewal, enrichment of the Russian language at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, German, Italian. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language, its terminology: philosophical, economic, legal, scientific and technical.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, representatives of the democratically-minded Russian intelligentsia, expressing their attitude to the reform of the literary language and its styles, emphasized that the issue of the literary language should not be resolved without defining the role of living folk speech in the structure of the national language. In this respect, the work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century Griboyedov and Krylov, who proved what inexhaustible possibilities a living folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is, is indicative.

The creator of the modern Russian literary language is rightfully considered A.S. Pushkin. His contemporaries wrote about the reformatory nature of the poet's work. So, N.V. Gogol stated with good reason: “It is, as if in a lexicon, that all the wealth, strength and flexibility of our language is contained. He is more than anyone, he further pushed his boundaries and more showed all of his space. "

The 19th century is the "Silver Age" of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature took place. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others is gaining universal gratitude. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are gaining worldwide recognition.

The development of literature, journalism, science contributes to the further development and enrichment of the Russian language. The vocabulary is replenished with new socio-political, philosophical, economic, technical terminology: worldview, integrity, self-determination, proletariat, humanity, education, reality, and many others. other. The phraseology is enriched: the center of gravity, bring to one denominator, negative value, reach the apogee, etc.

Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology: agitation, intelligentsia, intellectual, conservative, maximum, etc.

The rapid development of science, the steady growth of journal and newspaper production contributed to the formation of functional styles of the literary language - scientific and journalistic.

One of the most important features of the literary language as the highest form of the common language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, there is a process of processing the common language in order to create uniform grammatical, lexical, spelling, orthoepic norms. These norms are theoretically substantiated in the works of Vostokov, Buslaev, Fortunatov, Shakhmatov; described and approved in the grammars of Vostokov, Grech, Kalaydovich, Groth, etc.

The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries (historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century.

Well-known philologists of that time publish articles in which they define the principles of the lexicographic description of words, the principles of vocabulary selection, taking into account the goals and objectives of the dictionary. Thus, for the first time, questions of lexicography are being developed.

The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Its author in 1863 received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences and the title of Honorary Academician.

So, by the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian literary language was formed, its norms were determined, morphological and syntactic structures were described, dictionaries were compiled and published, which consolidated and legitimized its spelling, lexical, morphological features.

When characterizing the literary language of the 20th century, two chronological periods should be distinguished: I - from October 1917 to April 1985 and II - from April 1985 to the present. What happens to the Russian literary language during these periods?

After the formation of the Soviet Union, its development and enrichment continued. The vocabulary of the literary language is increasing most clearly. The volume of scientific terminology, for example, related to cosmology and astronautics, is growing especially intensively. A large number of words are created, denoting new phenomena and concepts that reflected fundamental transformations in the state, political, economic structure of the country, for example, a Komsomolets, regional committee, virgin lands, collective farm, socialist competition, kindergarten, etc. Fiction, journalistic, popular science literature replenished an arsenal of expressive and pictorial means of the literary language. In morphology, syntax, the number of synonymous options increases, differing in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring.

Researchers of the Russian language since the 1920s. XX century, special attention was paid to the theory of the literary language. As a result, they identified and characterized the systemic and structural division of the literary language. First, the literary language has two types: book-written and oral-spoken; secondly, each type is realized in speech. Literary speech is presented in a special speech (written - scientific speech and written official business speech) and in artistic and visual speech (written publicistic speech and written artistic speech). The oral-spoken type is presented in public speech (scientific speech and oral radio and television speech) and in spoken speech (oral spoken-everyday speech).

In the XX century, the formation of the Russian literary language ended, which began to represent a complex dark-structural organization.

The second period - the period of perestroika and post-perestroika - attached special importance to those processes that accompany the functioning of the language at all stages of its existence, made them more significant, more clearly expressed, brighter, more clearly presented. First of all, we should talk about a significant replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian language with new words (government structure, barter, foreign currency, Internet, cartridge, case, qiwi, adidas, hamburger, etc.), about the actualization of a large number of words that have been found; previously in liabilities. In addition to new words, many words have been brought back to life that seemed to have gone out of use forever: grammar school, lyceum, guild, governess, corporation, trust, department, communion, blessing, carnival, etc.

Speaking about the replenishment of the vocabulary of the literary language, one cannot fail to note: a striking feature of our today's language development is the clogging of speech with borrowings. The "foreignization" of the Russian language causes concern for linguists, literary scholars, writers, many, com; the Russian language is dear to those who are concerned about its future fate.

Throughout its history, the Russian language has enriched not only at the expense of internal resources, but also at the expense of other languages. But at some periods this influence, especially the borrowing of words, was excessive, then the opinion appears that foreign words do not add anything new, since there are Russian words that are identical to them, that many Russian words cannot compete with fashionable borrowings and are supplanted by them.

The history of the Russian literary language shows: borrowing without measure clogs speech, makes it not understandable for everyone; Reasonable borrowing enriches speech, gives it greater accuracy.

In connection with significant changes in the conditions for the functioning of the language, one more problem is currently becoming relevant, the problem of language as a means of communication, language in its implementation, the problem of speech.

What features characterize the functioning of the literary language in the late XX - early XXI century?

First, the composition of the participants in mass communication has never been so numerous and diverse (in terms of age, education, official position, political, religious, social views, party orientation).

Secondly, official censorship has almost disappeared, so people express their thoughts more freely, their speech becomes more open, confidential, and relaxed.

Thirdly, spontaneous, spontaneous, unprepared speech begins to prevail.

Fourth, the variety of communication situations leads to a change in the nature of communication. It frees itself from rigid formality, becomes more relaxed.

New conditions for the functioning of the language, the emergence of a large number of unprepared public speeches lead not only to the democratization of speech, but also to a sharp decline in its culture.

How is it shown? First, in violation of the orthoepic (pronunciation), grammatical norms of the Russian language. Scientists, journalists, poets, ordinary citizens write about this. Especially a lot of criticism is caused by the speech of deputies, television and radio workers. Secondly, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the democratization of the language reached such proportions that it would be more correct to call the process liberalization, or more precisely, vulgarization.

On the pages of periodicals, into the speech of educated people, a stream of jargon, vernacular elements and other non-literary means flooded: grandmother, piece, piece, steward, bastard, pump out, wash, unfasten, scroll and many others. others. Even in official speech, the words have become common: party, showdown, lawlessness and much more.

There are quite a few people who declare that swearing and swearing are considered a characteristic, distinctive feature of the Russian people. If we turn to folklore, proverbs and sayings, it turns out that it is not entirely legitimate to assert that the Russian people consider abuse an integral part of their life. Yes, the people are trying to somehow justify it, to emphasize that swearing is a common thing: Swearing is not a reserve, and without it, not for an hour; Abuse is not smoke - it will not eat up the eyes; Hard words break no bones. She even helps in work, you can't do without her: Do not swear, you can’t do the job; Without swearing, you cannot unlock the lock in the cage.

But something else is more important: To argue is an argument, and to scold is a sin; Do not scold: whatever comes out of a person, that will rot him; Abuse is not tar, but soot akin: it does not cling, so it stains; With abuse people dry up, but with praise they get fat; You can't take it with your throat, you can't beg for abuse.

This is not only a warning, it is already a condemnation, it is a prohibition.

The Russian literary language is our wealth, our heritage. He embodied the cultural and historical traditions of the people. We are responsible for his condition, for his fate.

The words of I.S. Turgenev: “In the days of doubt, in the days of painful thoughts about the fate of my homeland - you alone are my support and support, oh great, mighty, truthful and free Russian language! If it weren't for you, how not to fall into despair at the sight of everything that is happening at home? But one cannot believe that such a language was not given to a great people! "