1. The qualities of speech of verbal expression

1 . Content.

Need to know, what to tell. It should be interesting and new to the addressee. Without this, speech will turn into idle talk, chatter.

· It [prose] requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are useless. (A. Pushkin)

· On thoughts, breathing with power, words descend like pearls. (M.Lermontov)

· Follow the rule persistently: so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious. (N. Nekrasov)

2 . Accuracy.

According to M. Gorky, "accuracy gives language strength and beauty."

Speech should reflect knowledge of the subject of speech - the topic. The accuracy of depicting reality is the result of observation. The accuracy of observations and the simplicity of descriptions of nature by the masters of the artistic word are striking.

A clear smile of nature

He meets the morning of the year through a dream;

The blue shines in the skies.

Still transparent, forests

As if they are turning green in rest.

Bee for a tribute to the field

Flies out of the wax cell.

The valleys dry and dazzle;

The flocks are noisy, and the nightingale

I was already singing in the silence of the nights. ( A. Pushkin)

Words should be used in strict accordance with their meaning. You should not use words whose meaning is not entirely clear. This creates an unfavorable impression. Absolute accuracy is especially important in scientific and business speech, where distortions of facts, figures, etc. are completely unacceptable. In journalism, different interpretations of the facts are possible, but the facts must remain reliable.

3 . Consistency.

a) Speech should be built according to certain laws.

b) In speech it is necessary to follow the rules of logic.

Famous pun It was raining and two students. One in galoshes, the other to the university based on the game of two meanings of the verb go and ambiguity of the preposition v. The comic effect is created by the connection of the logically incompatible. An unexpected rethinking of ordinary things makes you laugh.

4 . Right.

Compliance with the norms of the literary language (orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, lexical, etc.)

Departure from literary norms should be motivated by the goals and conditions of communication.

5 . Expressiveness.

Expressiveness of speech is created not only by the ability to choose the most accurate and appropriate words in a speech situation, but also by the wide use of proverbs, phraseological units, catchphrases and artistic and visual means. Especially often they sound in oral speech and decorate written phraseological units.

6 . Purity.

Purity of speech presupposes the absence of words and expressions in it that are not literary. Swear words, rude words, words - "weeds" are completely unacceptable in literary speech.

Dialectisms are inappropriate in good speech if they are used unnecessarily, instead of the words of the literary language.

Slang words and expressions do not decorate speech ( trudge, on a high, the roof went, etc.)

The purity of speech is disturbed by the abuse of foreign words, which have recently been especially numerous in the newspaper-journalistic style: consensus(agreement), rating(rating, level of fame, popularity), pluralism(variety of opinions), precedent(an earlier case), plebiscite(popular vote), etc.

7 . Emotionality.

Speech has a stronger effect on the interlocutor if the speaker's attitude to what he is saying is expressed in it, if the speech is emotional. This sign of good speech is not characteristic of works of scientific and business style, but is necessary for colloquial, journalistic and artistic styles of speech.

The emotional coloring of speech is created by intonation, exclamation sentences, introductory words and expressions, specific vocabulary, a variety of artistic and visual means.

2. The literary form of the Russian language. Varieties.

Literary language- a processed part of the common language, possessing, to a greater or lesser extent, written norms; the language of all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form.

Literary language is a supra-dialectal subsystem (form of existence) of a national language, which is characterized by such features as normativity, codification, polyfunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige among the speakers of this national language. The property of everyone who owns its standards. It functions in both written and spoken forms. The language of fiction (the language of writers), although it is usually guided by the same norms, contains a lot of the individual, not generally accepted. In different historical epochs and among different peoples, the degree of closeness of the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal.

Literary language is the common language of writing of a particular people, and sometimes of several nations - the language of official business documents, school education, written everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form, often written, but sometimes orally. That is why the written-book and oral-spoken forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical laws.

Literary language is a historically developed, society-conscious linguistic system, which is distinguished by strict codification, however, it is mobile and not static, which covers all spheres of human activity: the sphere of science and education - scientific style; social and political sphere - journalistic style; the sphere of business relations - formal business style.

The idea of ​​the "fixation" of the norms of the literary language has a certain relativity (for all the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile in time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture of a people without a developed and rich literary language. This is the great social significance of the problem of the literary language itself.

There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of the literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about the literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either about the written literary language, or about the colloquial literary language, or about the language of fiction, etc.

The literary language cannot be equated with the language of fiction. These are different, albeit correlative, concepts.

3. The spoken form of the Russian language. Varieties.

If book styles (scientific, official-business, newspaper-journalistic, artistic) are used primarily in an official setting and in writing, require indispensable care of the form of expression, then conversational style used in an informal setting. The degree of preparedness of speech can be different. In everyday conversation, she is usually completely unprepared (spontaneous). And when writing a friendly letter, pre-written drafts can also be used. But this preparedness never reaches the degree that is characteristic of book styles.

All this leads to the fact that the dominant feature of the conversational style, especially colloquial speech, which exists in the oral form of unofficial personal communication, is to minimize worries about the form of expression of thoughts. And this, in turn, gives rise to a number of linguistic features of the spoken style.

On the one hand, the spoken style of speech is characterized by a high degree of language standardization. Typed, standard constructs are convenient for spontaneous (unprepared) speech. Each typical situation has its own stereotypes.

For example, stereotypes of etiquette include phrases: Good day!; Hey!; What's new?; Bye! In urban transport, stereotypes are used: On the next one, come out?; in the shop - Weigh three hundred grams of oil etc.

On the other hand, in a relaxed atmosphere, the speaker is not limited by the strict requirements of official communication and can use untyped, individual means.

It should be remembered that colloquial speech serves not only the purposes of the message, but also the purposes of influence. Therefore, the spoken style is characterized by expressiveness, clarity and imagery.

Some linguistic scholars distinguish three groups of colloquial speech from a lexico-semantic point of view.

1 ... Ordinary colloquial words, that is, everyday colloquial, or everyday.

2 ... Colloquial words with limited use: everyday everyday vernacular, colloquial terminological words, or jargon.

3 ... Colloquial words with a pronounced limitation of the sphere of use: dialectal, argotic and crudely colloquial, reduced words.

Each of these groups has words that are functionally connotative, that is, stylistically colored.

The literary-colloquial group includes words that have a certain shade of decline in comparison with other styles. But, despite this, such words are found in many spheres of human communication. So, for example, the words correspondence student, evening party, betonka, bagpipes, high-voltage, antiaircraft gun, manners; cry, fever, celebrate (birthday) and others are widely used in different genres of newspaper and journalistic style.

Colloquial and everyday words are words used in everyday everyday communication. Like the words of literary colloquial speech, they do not violate the norms of actual colloquial speech. But here words with a reduced meaning, which, moreover, have an additional stylistic coloration will prevail. This includes words with disapproving, humorous, ironic, familiar shades of speech. Using them in other styles of language would be inappropriate and ridiculous. Colloquially everyday (colloquially everyday) words include such words as brainless, nonsense, chatter, Dedok, joker, etc. All these words have a negative or positive expressive-emotional assessment that is not too conspicuous.

4. Vocabulary. Polysemous words, synonyms, ononyms, antonyms, paronyms.

Leksika (from ancient Greek τὸ λεξικός "relating to a word; word; turn of speech") is a set of words of a particular language, a part of a language. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects, phenomena. The science of lexicology, as well as semasiology and onomasiology, deals with the study of vocabulary.

All words are divided into unambiguous and ambiguous.

Unambiguous words are words that have only one lexical meaning.

Polysemous words are words that have two or more lexical meanings.

Examples of unambiguous words: pants, perpendicular, cake, adorable.

Examples of ambiguous words:

hand (part of the body - left hand; handwriting, creative manner - hand of the master)

beautiful (outwardly attractive - beautiful girl; interesting, effective, difficult to execute - a beautiful solution to a problem, a beautiful goal; designed only for external effect- these are just beautiful words)

cream (cosmetic product - hand cream, confectionery - chocolate cream cake).

Usually, all meanings of a polysemantic word are related to each other by similarity or contiguity. For example, the cap of a mushroom or a nail is called so because it looks like a cap - a headdress. And a wardrobe is not only a wardrobe (there is an old wardrobe in the room), but also a room for storing clothes (put the coat in the wardrobe), as well as the clothes themselves (renew the wardrobe) - in this case, the meanings of the word are related by contiguity.

The transfer of a name by similarity is called metaphor, and by contiguity, it is called metonymy. A commonly used metaphor or metonymy leads to the formation of a new meaning of a polysemantic word. The author's metaphor and metonymy are the means of expressiveness.

It is important to distinguish ambiguous words from homonyms: the meanings of polysemous words are related by similarity or contiguity, and the meanings of homonyms are not related in any way. An example of homonyms: dachshund (dog breed) - dachshund (tariff).

Synonyms(from ancient Greek σύν "together" † ὄνομα "name") - words of the same language, belonging, as a rule, to the same part of speech, different in pronunciation and spelling, but having similar lexical meaning.

Examples of synonyms in Russian: cavalry - cavalry, brave - brave, walk - walk.

They serve to increase the expressiveness of speech, allow you to avoid its monotony.

Omonims- these are the same in spelling, but different in meaning, morphemes and other units of the language. The term was introduced by Aristotle. Not to be confused with homophones, homographs, homoforms and paronyms.

Antonyms(Old Greek ἀντι - prefix with the meaning of the opposite † ὄνομα "name") - these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: "truth" - "lie", "kind" - "evil", "speak" - "be silent."

Paronims(from ancient Greek παρα- - a prefix with the meaning of adjacency, ὄνομα - "name") - these are words that are similar in sound and morphemic composition, but differing in lexical meaning. It is also possible to mistakenly use one of them instead of the other. For example, addressee - addresses n t. By analogy with the translator's false friends, paronyms are sometimes called false brothers.

5. Passive and active composition of the language: historicisms, archaisms, neologisms.

The set of words of the modern Russian language, as a designation of objects, phenomena and concepts, forms its vocabulary, or vocabulary. Words are characterized by a certain specificity: they differ from each other in their origin, degree of their activity, sphere of use, and in their stylistic affiliation. Taking these features of linguistic units into account makes it possible to substantiate the general principles of vocabulary classification:

According to its origin, the vocabulary is divided into primordially Russian and borrowed (from Old Church Slavonic and other languages ​​of the world);

According to the degree of use, the vocabulary is divided into active and passive vocabulary (the first includes regularly and often reproduced units, the second includes outdated and new vocabulary: historicisms, archaisms and neologisms);

Obsolete words.

Words that have ceased to be actively used in the language do not immediately disappear from it. For some time they are still understandable to those who speak a given language, they are known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer feels the need for them. Such words constitute passive vocabulary and are given in explanatory dictionaries with the mark obsolete.

The process of archaization of a part of the vocabulary of a particular language, as a rule, takes place gradually, therefore, among the outdated words there are those that have a very significant "experience" (for example, child, thief, speech, scarlet, therefore, this); others are removed from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, since they belong to the ancient Russian period of its development. Other words become obsolete in the shortest possible time, having appeared in the language and disappeared already in the modern period; Wed: shkrab - in the 1920s replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - Workers 'and Peasants' Inspection; NKVDist - an employee of the NKVD. Such nominations do not always have appropriate labels in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.

The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extra-linguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be due to linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs oshuyu, right hand (left, right) disappeared from the active vocabulary, because the producing nouns shuytsa - "left hand and right hand -" right hand were archaized. In such cases, the decisive role was played by the systemic relations of lexical units. So, the word shuitsa fell out of use, the semantic connection of the words united by this historical root also disintegrated (for example, the word shulga did not stay in the language in the meaning of "left-handed" and remained only as a surname that goes back to the nickname). oshuy - right hand), synonymous connections (oshuy, left) .However, the word right hand, despite the archaization of words associated with it by systemic relations, was retained for some time in the language. In the Pushkin era, for example, it was used in the "high syllable" poetic speech; cf: And the sting of a wise snake in my frozen mouth put a bloody right hand (P.), while Oshu was only an echo of a dilapidated archaic, and its use was only possible in a satirical context: Oshuy here sits with me the eighth miracle light (Bat.)

Obsolete words are divided into two groups: historicisms and archaisms.

TO historicisms those obsolete words that have gone out of use are related due to the fact that the objects or phenomena designated by them have gone from life: an armyak, a caftan, a camisole, a chain mail, a serf, a prince, armor, etc. There are no synonyms for historicism in modern Russian. In Russian, a special group is made up of historicisms of the Soviet period, these are: tax in kind, NEP, NEPman, farm laborer, workers' school, kulak, commissary, budenovka, etc.

Archaisms, their types

TO archaisms includes the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason ousted by other words belonging to the active lexical stock; Wed every day - always, comedian - actor, must - must, percy - chest, verb - speak, know - know. Their main difference from historicisms is the presence of synonyms in modern language, devoid of a tinge of archaism.

Words can be archaized only partially, for example, in their suffix design (height - height), in their sound (eighth - eighth, hospital - hospital), in some of its meanings (nature - "nature, pretty much -" excellent, disorder - "disorder" ). This gives grounds to distinguish several groups in the composition of archaisms.

Lexical archaisms- words that are outdated in all their meanings: lzya (you can), barber (hairdresser), zelo (very), therefore, to know, is coming.

Lexico-derivational archaisms- words for which certain word-formative elements are outdated: fisherman, flirt, to some extent (because), it is necessary, rukomesla (craft), to overstep.

Lexico-phonetic archaisms- words for which their phonetic design has become outdated, which has undergone some changes in the process of the historical development of the language: licorice, thief, young, breg, night, sveisky (Swedish), aglitsky (English), ironism, afeism.

Lexico-semantic archaisms- words that have lost their separate meanings: guest - "merchant", shame - "spectacle, vulgar -" popular ", dream -" thought ".

The most numerous group is actually lexical archaisms, which can be further systematized by highlighting words that are close in time to the transition to a passive vocabulary, or by distinguishing, for example, words that have one-root in modern vocabulary (lzya - not allowed, roaring - slob), and words , devoid of family ties with modern nominations: uy - "maternal uncle, strynya -" uncle's wife, worm - "skin" (compare: Ukrainian chereviki), vezha - "tent, wagon, etc.

3. New words (neologisms).

The lexical composition of the language is constantly replenished with new words, neologisms created to designate new objects, phenomena, to express new concepts. At the moment of their appearance, they enter a passive vocabulary and remain neologisms until they lose their shade of novelty and freshness. When such words become common and enter into active vocabulary, they cease to be neologisms.

Neologisms, their types

The classifications of neologisms are based on various criteria for their identification and evaluation. Depending on the way of appearance, neologisms are distinguished lexical that are based on production models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic that arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words. Among the lexical neologisms on the basis of derivation, one can distinguish words produced using suffixes (earthlings), prefixes (pro-Western), as well as suffix-prefix formations (lunar landing, undocking), names created by word composition (lunar rover, hydraulic weightlessness), compound abbreviated words (omon , special forces, CIS, GKChP) and abbreviated words (pom., deputy.).

Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into general language that appeared along with a new concept or new reality, and individually-author's introduced by specific authors. The overwhelming majority of neologisms belong to the first group; so, the neologisms that appeared at the beginning of the century collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plans many others are characterized by usability.

The second group of neologisms includes, for example, the word created by V. Mayakovsky sitting... Having crossed the boundaries of individual author's use, having become the property of the language, these words have now joined the active vocabulary. The language also mastered the terms introduced by M.V. Lomonosov long ago constellation, full moon, attraction; first used by N.M. Karamzin's words industry, future and dr.

The so-called occasionalisms(Latin occasionalis random) - lexical units, the occurrence of which is due to a certain context. All of the above neologisms are linguistic, they have become the property of the Russian lexicon, recorded in dictionaries, like any lexical unit, with all the meanings assigned to them.

Occasional neologisms- these are words formed by writers and publicists according to the word-formation models existing in the language and used only once in a certain work - high-noiseDubrovy(P.), in heavy snake hair (Bl.), fiery elderberry twigs (Tsv.). Such neologisms can be authored not only by writers; we ourselves, without noticing it, often come up with words in case (such as an opener, unpack, overload). Especially many occasionalisms are created by children: I made a macaron; See how the rain came down; I'm not a baby anymore, but a big one.

To distinguish between artistic and literary occasional and purely everyday ones, which are not a fact of artistic speech, the former are called individually stylistic. If everyday occasionalisms usually arise in oral speech, involuntarily, without being fixed anywhere, then individual-stylistic ones are the result of a conscious creative process, they are imprinted on the pages of literary works and perform a certain stylistic function in them.

In terms of their artistic significance, individual stylistic neologisms are similar to metaphors: at the heart of their creation is the same desire to discover new semantic facets in the word, to create an expressive image with economical speech means. As well as the brightest, freshest metaphors, individual stylistic neologisms are original and unique. At the same time, the writer does not set himself the task of putting into use the words he invented. The purpose of these words is different - to serve as an expressive means in the context of one, specific work.

Depending on the goals of creating new words, their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative and stylistic... The former perform a purely nominative function in the language, the latter give a figurative characterization of objects that already have names.

Nominative neologisms include, for example, the following: futurology, feminization, pre-perestroika (period), pluralism. The emergence of nominative neologisms is dictated by the needs of the development of society, the success of science and technology. These neologisms arise as names for new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although competing names (cosmonaut - astronaut) may appear simultaneously, one of which, as a rule, subsequently supplants the other. The bulk of nominative neologisms are highly specialized terms that constantly replenish scientific vocabulary and, over time, may become commonly used; Wed: lunar rover, dock, cosmodrome.

Stylistic neologisms are created as figurative names for already known objects, phenomena: pioneer, atomic city, auto city, starship. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms that are inferior to them in intensity of expressive coloring; Wed: starship - spaceship. However, the frequent use of these neologisms in speech translates them into an active vocabulary, neutralizes their stylistic coloring. For example, the word health resort, which came into the language as a stylistic neologism, is now perceived as a neutral synonym for the words sanatorium, rest house.

6. The origin of Russian vocabulary. Exotisms. Barbarisms.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has passed a long way of formation. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources supplemented and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.

The replenishment of the Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1 ... New words were created from the word-building elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the primordial Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

2 ... New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of the Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table.

Exoticism- foreign language borrowing, denoting an object or phenomenon from the life of another people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to their persistent ethnic association, exoticism, with rare exceptions, is not fully assimilated and usually remains on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. Moreover, such words can often change to fit the norms of a new language or be distorted, especially if they came through a third language, such as sushi or comics. Localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms are close to exoticism, describing the life realities of a sub-ethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the Szeklers (Szekei) and Chango (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Cooking and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, tacos, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)

Barbarism- a word from a foreign language or a turn of speech, built on the model of a foreign language, violating the purity of the speech of the native speaker.

Barbarism belongs to the least mastered type of borrowed vocabulary, it can be used in transliteration or even in a foreign language. Usually used for stylistic purposes to create "local flavor" or to follow the "fashion requirements".

7. Phraseologisms and winged words.

Absolutely every person uses phraseological units in communication with other people. And what is a phraseological unit and what is it eaten with? Phraseologism is a stable combination of words, that is, with an unchanging order, which, in turn, individually do not mean everything the same thing together. Where do the phraseological units come from? Who invented them? It is likely that phraseological units, they are also idioms, aphorisms, catchphrases, began to exist from the time human speech appeared. Academician V. began to study phraseological units closely, and he also laid the foundation for phraseological units as a linguistic discipline. Nowadays it is quite difficult to imagine our life without phraseological units. We often use them in a specific situation, sometimes even for a bunch of text in order to emotionally enhance the effect of what was said. In some moments, it is impossible to do without phraseological units! For example, “do not speak my teeth” in the meaning - do not say too much, agree more emotionally and persistently phraseological unit sounds than just a request not to say too much, unnecessary. Phraseologisms: examples and their meanings. History of origin. The origin of phraseological units. For example, such a phraseological unit as "to lead by the nose" in its unity means to deceive a person, if you take the words separately, the meaning is already lost. The history of the emergence of this phraseological unit goes back to Central Asia. Previously, camels and bulls were led there by ropes, which were tied to rings threaded through the nose of a camel or a bull. Thus, the character of the animal becomes more docile. Such phraseological units as "business in the hat", meaning that everything is well, the task entrusted has been completed, was "born" in the distant past, several centuries ago, when important letters and papers were delivered by a messenger on horse artillery. In those days, it was extremely dangerous to carry a bag with important papers, since robbers could attack on the way and take it away. To preserve important papers, they were sewn into the lining of the messenger's hat, and he delivered them to the specified place safe and sound. Or, for example, the phraseologism "cut your nose", meaning to remember once and for all! Do not think that he is not associated with any kind of bodily bullying. It's just that in ancient times, when people were still illiterate, they carried a small tablet with them everywhere and if something needed to be remembered, they made serifs on it. This little board was called the nose. Interesting, isn't it right? Sentences with phraseological units: examples. Several examples of the use of phraseological units in sentences. Yes, he will not go to school today, how to drink! Your friend is rather strange, if not of this world. It's written on his forehead who he is. The prodigal son has returned home! I know everything, you can not lead me by the nose.

winged the words

widely used expressions, phrases, sayings of historical persons and literary characters. Winged words, unlike aphorism, may not express a complete thought, but simply represent an apt figurative expression. For example, “I came, I saw, I conquered” by Julius Caesar, “But it still turns” by Galileo Galilei, “Potemkin villages” (from the 18th century memoirs). Winged words, as a rule, have already lost touch with their original source and with each use they are rethought in connection with a specific situation.

Publicists, orators, politicians resort to using winged words as confirmation of their opinion or a well-aimed argument against an opponent. Sometimes the winged words are deformed (for example, the newspaper headline “I came, I saw, I paid”). Often winged words are filled with new content in literary work... For example, the use of a Latin proverb in "The Stranger" by A. A. Blok:

And drunks with rabbit eyes.

8. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Types of dictionaries.

Lexicography- a section of linguistics devoted to the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, one of the areas of applied lexicology.

There are two main types of dictionaries according to their content: encyclopedic and linguistic... The object of description in the encyclopedic dictionary and encyclopedia is various objects, phenomena and concepts; the object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a language unit, most often a word. The purpose of the description in the linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (about its meaning, compatibility, etc.), the nature of the information provided by the dictionary differs depending on the type of the linguistic dictionary.

The main type of linguistic dictionary is explanatory dictionary... An explanatory dictionary serves to interpret the meaning of words, their role in studying the lexical system of the language is enormous. In the explanatory dictionary, you can get information about the lexical meaning of a word, find out whether it is polysemantic or not, find out if it has homonyms. Such a dictionary also provides information about the main orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, stylistic characteristics of the word, examples of word use are given. The dictionary consists of dictionary entries . There is a headword at the beginning of a dictionary entry (the totality of all capitalized, i.e. interpreted, words of the dictionary is called the vocabulary). The interpretation of meanings in a dictionary can be represented in different ways: descriptive(a description of the essential features of an object, phenomenon is given), synonymous(the meaning of the word is explained using the selection of synonyms), reference(Derivative words are described by referring to the producer, taking into account the meaning of the word-forming means). Different ways can be combined in one interpretation. Different meanings of one word can be interpreted in different ways.

Dictionaries can differ in the selection of vocabulary (in the composition and number of words included). Thus, a dictionary can cover the entire vocabulary of a language or some of its separate layers (dictionaries of terms, foreign words, slang vocabulary). Dictionaries that include the vocabulary of the national (common) language (for example, "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by VV Dal) or individual layers of the national language that are not included in the literary language ("Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects", "Arkhangelsk Regional Dictionary") are abnormal- they do not codify the literary language, do not establish its boundaries. If the dictionary is normative(these are all explanatory dictionaries published in Soviet times), it includes the vocabulary of the literary language.

Dahl's dictionary, published in 1863 and including 200 thousand words, occupies a special place among explanatory dictionaries. In 1935, D. N. Ushakov's “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published in 4 volumes. It is a normative vocabulary with a carefully designed labeling system. In 1949, SI Ozhegov's "Dictionary of the Russian language" was published. In the first edition, it included about 50,000 words. In the 1960s, the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language (BAS), the most complete of the normative explanatory dictionaries, was published. Explanatory dictionaries differ in the volume of the vocabulary, the principles of the arrangement of words, and the technical means of presenting the material.

In addition to explanatory ones, there are other types of linguistic dictionaries, differing in which aspect of linguistic units is the main one in them. There are translation dictionaries, reference dictionaries (spelling, spelling), reflecting systemic relations in the vocabulary (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

Linguistic dictionaries differ in the way the material is organized. The most common is alphabetical the way the words are arranged. The dictionary can be organized by nest principle, when in one dictionary entry not a word is interpreted, but the whole word-forming nest.

9. Expressive means of language. Trails.

Means of speech expression are one of the most important factors thanks to which the Russian language is famous for its wealth and beauty, which has been sung more than once in the poems and immortal works of Russian classics-writers. To this day, the Russian language is one of the most difficult to learn. This is facilitated by the huge number of means of expression that are present in our language, making it rich and multifaceted. To date, there is no clear classification of means of expression, but still two conventional types can be distinguished: stylistic figures and tropes.

Trails(from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech, reception, image) - those turns of speech that are based on the use of words in a figurative sense and are used to enhance the expressiveness of the speaker or writer.

Metaphor (from the Greek metafora - transfer, figurative meaning) - transfer of a name from one reality to another based on the similarity of features. For example: a noble nest, the sound of waves, etc.

Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the renaming of an object based on the similarity between the object and the material from which it is made. For example: the theater applauded (instead of the audience applauded).

Synekdokha (from the Greek synekdoche - correlation) (a kind of metonymy) - renaming an object based on a quantitative ratio; the name of the part (smaller) instead of the whole (larger) or vice versa. For example: My little head is missing (instead of I am missing).

Comparison is a comparison of two concepts, in which their similarity is revealed in some way. For example: The road winds like a gray ribbon ...; Snow dust stands in a column in the air; Snowflakes glittered like diamonds.

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbola - exaggeration) is a trope of speech, a figurative expression containing an exaggerated exaggeration of size, strength, meaning, etc. any object, phenomenon. For example: a river of blood.

Litota (from the Greek litotes - simplicity) - 1) deliberate understatement; 2) the trope of speech, which consists in defining a concept or object by negating the opposite; denial of a feature that is not inherent in the object, i.e. a kind of "negation of negation." For example: 1) a little man with a marigold; 2) useful.

Irony (from the Greek. Eironeia - pretense) is a trope consisting in assimilating a word or expression in the opposite sense of the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule. For example: This is Hercules! (about a frail person).

Epithet (from the Greek. Epitheto - attached) is an artistic, figurative definition. It is usually expressed by a word in a figurative sense - an adjective, an adverb, a noun-application. For example: emerald eyes, dress loudly, vagabond-wind.

Figures of speech- in the general case, any turns of speech that deviate from the natural norm.

Allegory (from the Greek allos - different, agoreuo - I say) is an allegorical depiction of a situation with the help of a specific life image: we are talking about one thing, but in fact they mean something completely different. For example: Someone who looks back too often can easily stumble and fall.

Alliteration (from Lat. Ad - to, with and littera - letter) is a figure of speech, a stylistic device consisting in the repetition of the same consonant sounds or sound combinations. For example: The hiss of frothy glasses And the punch is a blue flame.

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora) is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic elements at the beginning of each parallel row. For example: We must think about Russia! We must think about the people! Therefore, we must pass a law on environmental protection!

Antithesis (from the Greek. Antithesis - opposition) - opposition of concepts, images, thoughts. For example: What have you made of that France that I left in such a brilliant position? I left you the world, but I find war! I left you Italian millions, but I find predatory laws and poverty! I left you victories, but I find defeats!

Antonomasia (from the Greek antonomasia - renaming) is a replacement in the expression of a common noun with a proper name. For example: For a long time, jealous people have been called by the name of Othello, voluptuous people and wives - Don Juan.

Gradation (from Latin gradation - gradual increase) is a stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of parts of an utterance, in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotional-expressive meaning, due to which an increase in the impression they produce is created. For example: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry….

Inversion (from Latin inversio - turning, permutation) - the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order, violating the usual (direct) order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: I saw an interesting book yesterday; He plays and howls like a young beast that sees food from an iron cage.

A pun (from French calembour) is a figure of speech consisting in the humorous use of the polysemy of a word or the sound similarity of various words. For example: Osip is hoarse, and Arkhip is osip.

Multi-union (polysindeon) is a stylistic figure that consists in deliberately increasing the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, thereby emphasizing the role of each of them, creating a unity of enumeration, and enhancing the expressiveness of speech. For example: The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere into infinity.

Oxymoron (from the Greek oxymoron witty-stupid) is a stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts, contradicting each other, logically excluding one another. For example: a living corpse, the heat of cold numbers.

A paradox (from the Greek paradokos - unexpected, strange) is an opinion, a judgment that sharply diverges from the generally accepted, but upon closer examination, it is true, at least in some conditions. For example: Mutual misunderstanding is the most suitable basis for marriage.

Paraphrase (periphrasis) (from the Greek periphrasis - a descriptive expression, allegory) - a changed name of an object, phenomenon or person, replacing them with a description of essential features or an indication of them specific traits... For example: the king of beasts (instead of a lion), stay in the arms of Morpheus (instead of sleeping), the Melpomene temple (instead of a theater).

Parcellation (new lat. Parcellatio - division) is a figure of speech, a special division of a sentence, in which the content of an utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonational-semantic speech units, following one after the other after the dividing pause. For example: And again. Gulliver. Costs. Slouching.

A period is a structurally organized rhythmized utterance consisting of two proportional parts - ascending and descending. For example:

The more often the Lyceum celebrates

Your holy anniversary

The more timid the old circle of friends

In a family he is ashamed of being one,

The less often he is; so our holiday

In its gaiety it is darker;

The deafening of the ringing of the cups,

And our songs are all the sadder.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not imply new information in the answer: the speaker is asking essentially about what he has known for a long time, it is important for him that the listeners give themselves the same answer. For example: Who is not affected by the novelty?

Syntactic parallelism - the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech (identical or similar arrangement of speech elements). For example:

In the blue sea

The waves are splashing.

In the blue sky

The stars are shining.

Silence is a deliberate interruption of a statement, giving emotionality, emotion to speech and suggesting that the reader himself will guess what exactly remained unspoken. For example:

This fable could be better explained -

Yes, so as not to tease the geese ...

(The ellipsis means "we better keep quiet")

Ellipsis (from the Greek elleipsis - omission, lack) is a stylistic figure consisting in the omission (in speech or text) of any implied member of a sentence (linguistic unit) and giving speech dynamism, liveliness. For example: An order is given to him to the west, to Her - in the other direction; Tanya - 5, and Vale - 3; My mother is a doctor.

Epiphora (from the Greek epiphora - addition) is a stylistic figure, which consists in repeating the same elements at the end of each parallel row. For example:

This is the artist Altman,

A very old man.

In German means Altman -

A very old man.

10. Visual means of language. Shapes.

Figurative and expressive means of language- these are poetic turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense. All tropes (with the exception of metonymy) are based on comparison, juxtaposition of two phenomena in order to explain one with the help of the other.

Lexical means

Antonyms - different words related to one part of speech, but opposite in meaning ( good - evil, mighty - powerless). Opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech, serves as a means of antithesis: he was weak body but strong spirit.

Contextual (or contextual) antonyms - these are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - that's the main thing that distinguished this hero.

Hyperbola - a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression: Snow felled from the sky poods.

Litota - thin understatement : a little man with a marigold. Used to enhance the artistic impression.

Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) - due to their novelty, they allow you to create certain artistic effects, express the author's view on a topic or problems: ... how can we ourselves see to it that our rights are not widened at the expense of the rights of others?(A. Solzhenitsyn)

Synonyms - these are words related to one part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: Falling in love is love, a friend is a friend. Consumed Synonyms allows you to more fully express the idea, use. To strengthen the trait.

Contextual (or contextual) synonyms - words that are synonymous only in this text: Lomonosov is a genius - a beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)

Metaphor - hidden comparison based on similarities between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.

In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic idea of ​​the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands on what kind of similarity the semantic connection between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based: There were, are, and, I hope, there will always be more good people in the world than bad and evil, otherwise there would be disharmony in the world, it would have skewed ... overturned and sank. An epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be seen as a kind of metaphor.

Impersonation - one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. When personified, the described object is externally used by a person: The trees, bending over to me, stretched out thin arms. Even more often, actions that are permissible only for people are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain spanked with bare feet along the paths of the garden.

Proverbs and sayings, used by the author, make speech figurative, mark, expressive.

Comparison - one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, to create whole artistic pictures, to give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. The comparison is usually joined by unions: as if, as if, as if, exactly, etc. but serves for a figurative description of the most diverse signs of objects, qualities, actions. For example, a comparison helps to give an accurate description of a color: Like the night his eyes are black.

Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case: Anxiety snake crawled into our hearts. There are comparisons that are included in the sentence using words: similar, similar, reminds:… butterflies are like flowers.

Phraseologisms - these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language, used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, are used. In order to show the author's attitude to events, to a person, etc .: people like my hero have spark of god. Phraseologisms have a stronger effect on the reader.

Epithet - a word that distinguishes in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is an artistic definition, that is, colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition of another: chatterbox magpie, fateful hours. peers eagerly; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense: half-sleepy, gentle, loving eyes.

Gradation - a stylistic figure, concluding in the consecutive forcing or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world! The gradation is ascending (strengthening of the sign) and descending (weakening of the sign).

Antithesis - stylistic device, which consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, portray contradictions, contrast phenomena. Serves as a way to express the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.

Colloquial vocabulary attaches add. Expressive emotion. Coloring (put, negate, reduce), can give a playful, ironic, familiar attitude to the subject.

Histories - words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts that they denoted (chain mail, coachman)

Archaisms- words that are in a lie. Rus. The language has been replaced by other concepts. (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)

In the works of the artist. Lit. They help to recreate the flavor of the era, are means of speech characteristics, or can be used as a means of comic.

Borrowing... The words - to create humor, nominative function, attach national. Color, brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is being described.

Stylistic figures - special turns of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of an utterance (for example, anaphora, epiphora, symlock, ellipse, amplification, antithesis, oxymoron, parcellation, parallelism, gradation, inversion, non-union, polyunion, chiasm, silence, etc.) ... Sometimes tropes are referred to stylistic figures, as well as unusual word combinations, turns of speech that go beyond the linguistic norm (for example, solecism).

11. Gender of non-declining nouns

Gender of non-declining common nouns
Average	Male	Female
Inanimate: mashed potatoes, coats, mufflers (but: wives R. avenue, kohlrabi. salami: male R. coffee, tenge, penalty).	Animated, denoting persons husband. gender or animals: bourgeois, kangaroo, chimpanzee.	Animated denoting persons female miss, frau, mademoiselle.
A genus of indefatigable proper denominations
Determined by that common word to which this name belongs: Or(river) - f. R.: Ontario(lake) - cf. R.; Baku(town), Almaty(city) - m.
Genus unwilling complex abbreviated words
Determined by the nature of the main word in the phrase from which this compound-abbreviated word is derived: CIS- cf. R. ( Commonwealth Independent States), MTS- well. R. (machine-tractor station), vocational school - Wed R. (vocational school).

Declination of first and last names

Bow down	Do not lean
Male foreign names for consonants (Jack London, novels by Jules Verne)	Male foreign names ending in a vowel (Paolo - about Paolo, Jose - to Jose)
The second part of foreign French double names (o Jean-Jacquet Rousseau)
Russian and foreign language surnames with a consonant sound, if they refer to a man ( Pavel Belous, for Tom Brown)	Russian and foreign language surnames to a consonant, if they refer to a woman (Natalia Belous, Maria Müller)
	The names of the group “Animals. Subjects " (To Andrey Chizh, Elena Kvadrat)
Foreign surnames with unstressed vowel -а / -я (poems by Petrarch, paintings by Goya)	Foreign surnames with a stressed -а / -я or another vowel (from Versace)

12. The name is an adjective. Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Adjective name An adjective name is an independent part of speech denoting a non-procedural feature of an object and answering the questions "what?", "What?", "What?", "What?", "Whose?" etc. In Russian, adjectives change in gender, cases and numbers, they can have a short form.

Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives

From most qualitative adjectives, it is possible to form simple and complex forms of comparative and superlative degree: dangerous– dangerous her – more (less ) dangerous; dangerous eish uh - most dangerous - more dangerous all - the most dangerous, nai dangerous her shy.

Complicated form of comparative degree (e.g. more dangerous, more difficult, taller, more beautiful) characterized as bookish; simple form (more dangerous, harder, higher, more beautiful) stylistically neutral. However, with the prefix on- she gets a colloquial coloration, cf .: higher, prettier, stronger etc.

Forms with a suffix -her also typical for colloquial speech: fast her - faster, clever her- smarter, more dangerous her- more dangerous. Forms prettier, sweeter, worse, brighter, louder and others like it are vernacular.

Connecting simple and complex shapes (stronger, faster, less dangerous etc.) is a violation of the stylistic norm.

The comparative degree of adjectives is used in speech to compare the same quality in different subjects: No treasure is dearer than life. A drunk driver driving a car is no less dangerous than an armed bandit. As part of legal terms, it is used without comparison with another subject: less serious bodily harm, lighter punishment.

Superlative forms are characterized by greater variety in education and use than comparative forms. The book character has a simple form (especially with the prefix nai – ), the complex form is used in all styles of speech. Wed: the most important – the most important, the lightest– the lightest, the strictest– the strictest. Note that simple superlatives are more expressive than complex ones. Complex forms composed of a simple comparative degree and a word of all (most important of all, stricter of all, smarter of all etc.), have a colloquial connotation.

The combination of simple and complex forms contradicts the linguistic norm: the most dangerous, the hardest. Necessary: most dangerous or the most dangerous, hardest or the heaviest . Unfortunately, in recent years, radio and television broadcasts can increasingly be heard vthe nearest, shortest period; the most dangerous disease, the most important task, which violates the literary norm. I wonder what in legal term punishment below the lower limit simple forms of comparative and superlative degrees are combined.

Synonymous forms of short adjectives

V in some cases, it is difficult to use parallel forms of short adjectives. As, for example, it is correct: responsible or responsible? Sharp or Sharp?

Variants in the formation of the short form of masculine adjectives with suffixes -en and -enen usually seen in adjectives that have multiple consonants before the suffix –yenn– , e.g .: claim sstv enlightened, naturally st answer, answer tstv enny, beznra vstv enlightened etc. The development of these forms is interesting. More ancient was the form with the suffix –yen, she came from the Slavic language. Then there was a tendency to use forms with the suffix -enen, in recent decades, researchers have noted the predominance of forms with the suffix –yen: appearances yen, meaningless yen, properties yen, ignorance yen etc. It should be remembered that short forms with the suffix –yen are the norm of literary speech, forms with a suffix -enen perceived as obsolete. But you need to distinguish between short forms responsible (short participle: responsible yen for conducting the investigation, i.e. answers) and responsible (short adjective: ohm responsible, i.e. conscientious).

13. Numeral name. Variants of combinations of numerals with nouns. The declension of the numbers is one and a half, one and a half hundred.

Numeral- an independent part of speech, which denotes the number, quantity and order of objects. Answers the questions: how much? which the?

Numbers are divided into four lexico-grammatical categories: quantitative (two, fifty, two hundred, three hundred fifty one) and collective (both, two, five) - answer the question how?, ordinal- answer the question which the? (first, second, hundredth), fractional (one fifth, three wholes, two sevenths). The composition of cardinal numbers includes definite-quantitative and indefinite-quantitative numbers. The first denote a certain number of units ( two, four, fifteen, one hundred and fifty, two hundred), the second - an indefinite number of units; these include words few, quite a few, many, Little as well as pronouns several, how, any, a little, so many.

The numeral both is used in combination with masculine and neuter nouns, as well as different genders: both brothers, both windows, both: brother and sister. Numeral both - only in combination with feminine nouns: both sisters, both doors. Both numerals, both are not used with nouns that do not have a singular form. Wrong: at both gates, at both points. We can say: at those and other gates, at two points.

The word pair is used in the meaning of two only with paired objects and is colloquial: a pair of stockings, socks, a pair of eyes, hands. Wrong: a pair of coats (unpaired item), required: two coats. The word pair also has several meanings and is found in colloquial speech: a couple of trifles, a couple of days, a couple of words. May I ask you a few words?

With a mixed number, the noun is governed by a fraction, that is, the noun is placed in the genitive singular: 8.7 seconds; 41.3 centners; 12.7 kilometers.

Compound numbers ending in two, three, four (22, 23, 44, 102, 104, etc.) are not combined with nouns that have only plural forms (day, scissors). The fact is that words such as day are combined not with quantitative, but with collective numerals (two, three), which cannot be included in a composite numeral. Incorrect: The hike lasted twenty-two days. The hike lasted twenty-two days. Correct options: The hike lasted for twenty two days (the whole construction is put in the genus case). The hike lasted twenty-two days (the variant with the synonym is less preferable).

Compound numbers for two, three, four, combined with animate nouns in the accusative case, retain the nominative case: take twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers. This is a book version. Conversational option: accept twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers.

Numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred in all cases, except for the nominative and accusative, are combined with the plural of the subsequent noun and have, respectively, the forms of one and a half, one and a half hundred: one and a half dozen apples were bought - up to one and a half dozen apples, one and a half meters - limited to one and a half meters.

The declension of the numbers "one and a half", "one and a half hundred"

Numeral one and a half has two nominative forms - one and a half(m. r. and s. r.) and one and a half(f): one and a half liters, one and a half logs, one and a half life... Declension of numbers one and a half, one and a half, one hundred and fifty(number, quantity of smth. equal to 150) is limited to only two case forms: one and a half, one and a half, one hundred and fifty for the nominative-accusative and one and a half and one and a half hundred for all indirect cases without generic differences. Right: about a day and a half, one and a half kilometers, a not about one and a half days, one and a half days, one and a half hundred kilometers.

14. Pronoun. Features of the declension of personal pronouns, their combination with prepositions.

Pronoun- an independent part of speech, which includes words that indicate objects, signs, etc., but do not name them. In a sentence, pronouns can act as different members of the sentence.

Groups of pronouns by correlation with other parts of speech:

• pronouns-nouns (I, who, nothing);

· Pronouns-adjectives (none, own);

· Pronouns-numerals (several, not at all).

The categories of pronouns:

· Personal (indicate a person or an object): me, you, he, she, it, we, you, they;

Reflexive (indicates an attitude towards the actor): oneself;

· Possessive (indicate belonging to one of three persons): mine, yours, yours;

· Indicative (generally indicate objects, their quality or quantity): this, this, that;

· Interrogative (pass the question): who, who, whose;

· Relative (in form they coincide with interrogative pronouns, but act as union words): who, what;

· Negative (indicate the absence of an object): no one, nothing;

Vague (indicate vague objects or their signs): someone, someone;

· Attributive (indicate a generalized attribute of an object): any, any.

In a sentence, the pronoun can act as the same member of the sentence as the part of speech instead of which it is used:

· Subject: I came home very tired.

· Definition: I want to buy a book.

· Addition: I want to ask her about it.

· Circumstance: The boys went to her.

· Declination of pronouns- this is the inflection of pronouns for cases, gender and numbers. Since pronouns in Russian are represented by groups of words with different grammatical features, the features of their declension are different.

· Most pronouns are inflected. Unwanted exception words include possessive pronouns him, her, them and uncertain someone, something... Demonstrative pronoun such is and interrogative what change only by numbers and genders (these are the rules, this is the solution, what are the questions, what is the plan).

· Features of declension of pronouns in Russian with examples are given in the tables.

Declination of personal pronouns in Russian

Singular	Plural
1st person	2nd person	3rd person	1st person	2nd person	3rd person
M. p.	S. p.	J. p.
I. p.	I am	you	he	it	she	we	you	they
R. p.	me	you	his	her	US	you	their
D. p.	to me	you	his	her	US	to you	them
V. p.	me	you	his	her	US	you	their
T. p.	me (me)	by you (by you)	them	her (her)	us	you	by them
P. p.	about me	about you	about him	about her	about Us	about you	about them

In indirect cases, when used with prepositions, the prefix is ​​added to the personal pronouns of the 3rd person n-... Prepositions with pronouns are written APART!

Prepositions
Have	at me	at you	at US
WITH	with him	with by her	with us
Per	per me	per them	per US
TO	To you	To him	To to you
Front	front us	front you	front them
Without	without you	without her	without you
For	for me	for him	for them

15. Verb. Features of the formation of some personal forms.

Verb Is a word that denotes an action and answers the questions of what he does, what he did, what he will do, etc. Verb Is a part of speech that denotes an action or state of an object. ... In the indicative mood Verbs change in time, that is, there can be present, future and past tense.

The formation of some personal forms

1. Verbs win, convince, find yourself, feel, weird and some others, belonging to the so-called insufficient verbs (i.e., verbs limited in the formation or use of personal forms), do not form the 1st person singular present-future tense. If it is necessary to use these verbs in the specified form, a descriptive construction is used, for example: I will be able to win, I want (I strive) to convince, I can find myself, I will try to feel, I will not be weird.

Due to phonetic coincidence with the forms from other verbs, such forms as "wake up" (from rage, cf. wake up from wake up), "Hold" (from dare, cf. keep from Keep), "Tuzhu" (from pummel, cf. pushing from grieve) and some others.

Verbs kill, murmur form the l-th person singular of the form I will kill, I murmur.

2. Verbs get well, disgusted, disgusted form personal forms by conjugation I: I get well, you eat, you eat; disgusted, - you eat, - they eat; disgusted, -you, -you... Forms of these verbs get well, -you, -yat etc. (by II conjugation) are colloquial.

3. Verb build up forms an indefinite form and past tense ( was based) with the suffix -and- (by II conjugation); present tense forms and participles are formed by conjugation I ( is built, are built, built).

The same ratio of forms in the verb be ruffled (hesitated; unshakable - unshakable, unshakable, unshakable).

Verb lay down used only in the infinitive and in the past tense ( the fog was spreading); personal forms are formed by I conjugation from an equal verb lay (Xia), for example: fog spreads, meadows spread across boundless space.

Verb honor in 3rd person plural has equal forms honor - honor; Wed Gorky: Both of them honor the memory of her with love. – They are honored, obeyed by thousands of people like him.

4. Some verbs form two forms of the present tense, such as the verb rinse: rinses(without alternating final consonants of the infinitive stem and the present stem) and rinses(with alternating consonants in the named forms).

First forms: rinses, splashing, dripping, clucking, waving, purring, waving, prowling and others are characteristic of the conversational style. Second forms: rinses, splashes, caplet, clucks, wiggles, purrs, waves, prowls and others are inherent in the literary language. Wed in fiction:

On the river ... women are sitting, rinse (L. Tolstoy). - In the bright blue of the sky rinse banners(Pavlenko) (the use of the word in a figurative sense in the second case does not affect its literary form);

Flock of seabirds flutters on the waves(Goncharov). - Romantic ghosts of the past surround me, take over my soul, sway, cradle, cradle ...(Korolenko);

Horse waving tail(Saltykov-Shchedrin). - There is a gray-haired sorceress, shaggy waving sleeve(Derzhavin).

Along with the stylistic, the semantic delimitation of parallel forms is noted.

The form splashing - splashing has the meaning of "sprinkle, sprinkle": splashes water, splashes laundry; the form splatter - splatter means "to scatter in drops, to scatter drops, to sprinkle": mud splatters, sparks splash, splatters of saliva.

The form move - move means "to move, push or pull something": moves furniture; the form move - motivates with the same value ( the locomotive drives the wagons) has a figurative meaning "to induce, to lead": he is driven by a sense of compassion... Wed also verb forms move: it doesn't move - time moves forward(the second option is book); Tired horses can hardly move. – Familiar figures, everyday episodes, everyday scenes are moving(both examples from Korolenko). The train is moving means "starts moving"; the train is moving means "is in motion."

The form drip - drip it means "to fall in drops, to pour in drops": sweat drips from the forehead, the nurse drips the medicine into the glass; book version: dripping rain; the form drip - caplet means "to leak, to pass liquid": roof caplet.

The form throw - throw means "to sew, to sew with stitches, to sew a loop": throws a sweater, throws a seam... The form throw- mosque means "to throw, scatter, scatter": mosquethunder and lightning, throws angry eyes; also: spawns; in the same sense of "throw" in sports everyday use the form throws: throws a hammer, disc, spear etc.

In vernacular and in dialects there are forms clicks(instead of calls out- from to click), meows(from meow; literary form meows- from mew).

Common are the forms pours, tingles(instead of sprinkles, pinches- from sprinkle, pinch).

5. Verbs milk, cut, water, hide in the literary language form the form of the imperative mood for -and :… Anxiety, abusive drink!(Block).

Some prefixed verbs you- form equal forms of the imperative mood: stick it out - stick it out, stick it out - stick it out, straighten it out - straighten it out, rash - rash; the second options in each pair are of a book character.

Verbs that have before -it infinitive there is a combination st or a confluence of two consonants, the first of which is a fluent consonant R , also form equal forms: clean - clean, do not spoil - do not spoil, do not wrinkle - do not wrinkle, do not wrinkle - do not wrinkle... However, in the plural, only the forms on -you : clean, do not spoil.

Forms notify - notify, feast - feast, cork - cork, uncork - uncork are also equal. However, the forms take a look, go out, do not steal, put down(in a phraseological combination take out and put) are colloquial.

The vernacular, on the other hand, has the forms go(instead of go),clip(instead of hug); also drive(instead of go)

Species options

1. Forms run, confess, preach etc. are obsolete. Wed modern supervise, profess, preach.

Using the form organize(as well as organize in the sense of an imperfect form) is justified by the fact that in the past tense the verb organize only the perfect form matters (cf. he organized a tourist song festival), therefore, to express the value of the imperfect form in the past tense, the form is needed organized(cf .: annuallyhe organized tourist song festivals). For the same reason, the form attacked(the form attacked has the value of the perfect form).

2. Form type options condition - condition associated with the peculiarities of the formation of an imperfect species by means of suffixes -wa-, -iva- : in some cases vowel alternation occurs oh-a in the root, and in others the root vowel O saved:

1) verbs requiring the specified alternation: procure - procure, swamp - swamp, freeze - freeze, build up - build up, touch - touch, process - process, refine - ennoble, master - master, challenge - challenge, honor - honor, assimilate - assimilate and etc.;

2) verbs that preserve the root O : slam - slam, trouble - preoccupy, defame - defame, delay - delay, time - time, legitimize - legitimize, authorize - empower and others. This also includes verbs in which O refers to the suffix -ow- , since the formation of species is associated with the alternation of letters in the root, and not in the suffix, for example: rob - rob, commemorate - commemorate, charm - enchant, staff - staff;

3) verbs that allow both forms (book form - with O , colloquial - with a ): to suspect - to suspect, to condition - to condition, to concentrate - to concentrate, to mutilate - to disrespect, to agree - to agree and some others;

4) verbs forming imperfect forms with suffixes -wa-, -iva- (colloquial form) and with suffixes -and I- (book form): harvest - prepare, litter - litter, accumulate - accumulate, empty - empty, encourage - cheer up, prepare - prepare, replace - substitute, try on - try on, adapt - adapt, catch a cold - catch a cold, cut - cut and etc.;

5) verbs forming an imperfect form with a suffix -I am- (book form): heal - heal, acquaint - acquaint, formalize - formalize, legitimize - legitimize(also legitimize, see above), speed up - speed up and etc.

It is also possible non-prefixed forms of an imperfect type, acting in tandem with prefixed formations of a perfect type, for example: disturb - disturb, dishonor - shame, defame - defame and others. The use of these forms is more preferable than the forms with the suffix -willow- (dishonor, defame).

3. Among verbs like (with the suffix -izova- and the suffix -isation- ), three groups can be distinguished:

a) verbs with a suffix -izova- :

demoralize, mobilize, neutralize, normalize, paralyze, realize, stylize, centralize, electrify;

b) verbs with a suffix -isation- :

agonize, activate, militarize, hospitalize, democratize, idealize, irony, canonize, romanize, monopolize, moralize, municipalize, polemicize, signal, symbolize, utilize, vernalize;

c) verbs that have both options:

vulcanize - vulcanize

harmonize - harmonize

colonize - colonize

crystallize - crystallize

legalize - legalize

localize - localize

modernize - modernize

pasteurize - pasteurize

popularize - popularize

rationalize - rationalize

secularize - secularize

stabilize - stabilize

standardize - standardize

terrorize - terrorize and some others.

In book-writing speech, the second option is more common.

4. The colloquial tone is inherent in the second option in pairs:

disdain - disdain; for example: Grandpa ... did not disdain to flaunt on the side when he drove in a cab(Gladkov);

see - see; for example: ... Wild Master, I'm in it[in the room] haven't seen(Turgenev);

smoke - smoke(meaning "emit soot"); for example: Onlooking at you, the flies die and the lamps start to smoke(Chekhov);

climb - climb; for example: Climbed trees, ravaged bird nests(Saltykov-Shchedrin);

measure - measure; for example: Measure all the lines ...(Bitter);

torment - torment; for example: Why are you torturing me like that?(Dostoevsky);

raise - raise; for example: Gypsies... raised them[to horses] legs and tails, shouted, cursed ...(Turgenev);

whistle - whistle; for example: The boy whistled shrilly ...(Kuprin); in the meaning of "to make a whistle with a mechanical device" only the verb is used whistle;

hear - hear; for example: - Have you heard, sir, about your misfortune? - asked the driver(Garin-Mikhailovsky).

5. In some cases, both forms are acceptable, for example: Busruns along this line every five minutes. – The bus runs on this line every five minutes.... The difference between both options is as follows: walks has the meaning "back and forth", that is, indicates movement not in one direction, but goes means "only there", that is, indicates movement in one direction.

6. The names of the means of land mechanical and air transport are usually combined with the verb go, for example: The bus goes on a new route; The train travels at a speed of 60 kilometers per hour; The tram goes to the park; Airplanes go(also fly) in sequence... Word motorbike combined with the verb drive, for example: The motorcycle was driving right at us.

The names of vehicles on water are combined as with a verb go and with the verb sail, for example: Loaded barges go (float) down the river; A boat was (was sailing) near the shore; Torpedo boats sail in a wake column; Ships are sailing in the sea.

7. In pairs extinguished - went out, mok - got wet, dry - dried etc. in the modern language, the first variants are more often used (without the suffix -Well- ). Masculine past tense forms of verbs with suffix -Well- are equal: lethargic - faded, rejected - rejected, resorted - resorted, terminated - terminated, refuted - refuted and etc.

Returnable and non-returnable forms

1. Type options the sail whitens in the distance - the sail whitens in the distance(with the reflexive and non-reflexive forms of the verb, which have the same meaning "to be visible in their color, to be distinguished by them") differ in that in the reflexive verb this feature is revealed less clearly and less firmly. Wed also: in the distance the forest turns black - in the distance the forest turns black, in the fog something turns blue - in the fog something turns blue, the honey in the cup turns yellow - the honey in the cup turns yellow etc. If there is a word in the sentence indicating the intensity of the manifestation of the sign, the irreversible form is preferable, for example: young grass turns bright green.

In the meaning “to become white (green, red, black, etc.)”, only the irreversible form is used, for example: strawberryit turns red in the sun, silver turns black from time to time, the fox fur turns yellow very quickly.

2. In pairs threaten - threaten, knock - knock etc., reflexive verbs are characterized by the meaning of greater intensity of action, interest in its result; Wed: he knocked on the door - he knocked on the door to open... Stylistically, these forms differ in that the forms on -inherent colloquial style, for example: One woman from the threshold of her hut threatened me with a grip(Turgenev).

3. In pairs spin - spin, splash - splash, decide - decide etc. the first (irreversible) forms are characterized as literary, the second - as colloquial; Wed: Dasha decided to start an independent life as soon as possible(A. N. Tolstoy). - Demoted to the degree of cook, Glafira decided to while away her life in the kitchen(Ch. Uspensky).

4. When using verbs in -sya one should take into account the possibility of their two meanings coinciding - passive and recurrent, which can give rise to ambiguity, for example: Foreign citizens who are lost in our city gather here(do they come by themselves or do they collect them?). In such cases, an edit corresponding to the desired meaning is necessary; Wed: a) Foreign citizens come here ...; b) Foreign citizens are gathered here ...

Lexicology- a section of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (vocabulary) and the entire lexical system (vocabulary) of the language.
Vocabulary (from Greek - verbal, vocabulary) - vocabulary, a set of words in a language.

Phraseology- a set of stable turns of speech and expressions (phraseological units) characteristic of a particular language. Phraseology is also called a section of the science of language that studies stable combinations of words.

Word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word

Word Is a linguistic unit that serves to designate (name) objects and attributes (actions, relationships, qualities, quantities).

The meaning of a word is understood as the reflection in the word of the realities of reality (objects, signs, relationships, processes, etc.).
The meanings of words are recorded in explanatory dictionaries.

Dictionary- a book containing a list of words or other linguistic units (morphemes, phrases, phraseological units), arranged in a certain order, most often alphabetical. There are encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries.

Encyclopedic dictionaries describe the object of extra-linguistic reality itself and try to present the maximum number of features of this object.
Linguistic dictionaries describe linguistic units. Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into two groups: explanatory, describing the lexical meaning of words (along the way also reflecting its spelling, stress, part of speech, individual grammatical forms), and aspect, describing words in terms of their spelling (spelling), pronunciation (orthoepic), morphemic composition (morphemic), derivational derivation (derivational), grammatical forms (grammatical), origin (etymological, foreign words), as well as in terms of their relationship with other words (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, compatibility, etc.).

Unambiguous and ambiguous words. Direct and figurative meaning of the word

Words are unambiguous(having the same lexical meaning) and ambiguous(having multiple meanings).

Unambiguous words are most of the terms, some names of tools, professions, varieties of trees, etc. Unambiguous, for example, the words: stool, sugar bowl, huge, suffix.

A large number of words have several (two or more) meanings. So, for example, for the word head in the Explanatory Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov 6 meanings are given:
1) part of the body of a person or animal,
2) mind, reason ( He's a man with a head),
3) a person as a bearer of ideas ( He's the head!),
4) the front of something ( column head, train),
5) livestock counting unit ( herd of 100 heads),
6) food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar).

All meanings of a polysemantic word are related (although sometimes not all at once).
In a polysemantic word, the main (original, primary) meaning of the word and its derived meanings are highlighted. New meanings arise for a word as a result of the transfer of the name (the outer shell of the word - sound and letter sequences) from one object of reality to other objects.

Different meanings of one word are placed in one dictionary entry of the explanatory dictionary.
The development of polysemy of words is associated with the ability of human thinking to establish connections between similar objects, phenomena or signs and transfer names from one object or phenomenon to others. Wed, for example: gold ring and Golden heart, peak and pinnacle of success.

The primary meaning of a word that arose to designate something and serves directly for this purpose is called direct meaning. Other, secondary (derived) meanings arising from the transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon, attribute, etc. to another, are called figurative.

Homonymy- this is a coincidence in the sound and writing of linguistic units, the meanings of which are not related to each other.

The main type of homonyms are lexical homonyms- words of the same part of speech that have the same sound, spelling and grammatical design, but different meanings. If between the meanings of a polysemous word there are semantic connections based on different types of transfer of the name, then the meanings of homonyms are not related to each other, they do not have common semantic components (in contrast to different meanings of a polysemantic word). Homonyms are different words.

So, for example, homonyms are the words vulture (bird), vulture (print) and vulture (part of a string instrument); interfere (stir) and interfere (be a hindrance).

The emergence of homonyms may be associated with an accidental coincidence in the language of the original Russian and the borrowed word ( smoke puff - Russian and club - society- English) or several borrowings from different languages ​​( focus - trick- it. and focus optical - lat.), As well as with the peculiarities of word formation ( critical from a crisis and critical from criticism) and with the decay of polysemy ( syllable - part of a word and syllable - style).

In contrast to the meanings of a polysemantic word, which are placed in explanatory dictionaries in one dictionary entry, homonyms, being different words, are allocated to different dictionary entries.

It is necessary to distinguish from lexical homonymy related phenomena - phonetic, grammatical and graphic homonymy.

Phonetic homonyms(omofon? ny) are words that are spelled differently, but pronounced in the same way (due to reduction and stunning / voicing), for example: code - a cat, a pond - a twig, exhaustion - exhaustion, stay - arrive.

Grammatical homonyms(homofo? rmy) are different words that coincide in separate grammatical forms. So, for example, the verbs fly and treat match in the form of 1 person singular present tense - flying ; my - the form of the imperative mood of the verb wash and possessive pronoun; bake - verb and noun.

Graphic homonyms(omo? graphs) - words that are spelled in the same way, but pronounced differently due to the difference in stress: for? mok - zamo? k, mu? ka - flour ?, steam - soar.

In works of fiction (especially in poetry), as well as in a newspaper headline, in advertising, homonymy and related phenomena are often used as a means of a language game to create a special expressiveness of the text (for example: Legs are pressed by narrow chrome - In the day, you will get dirty and become chrome. V. Mayakovsky; restaurant advertisement: Time is up!).

Synonymy- the phenomenon of complete or partial coincidence of the meaning of linguistic units with their different sound and spelling.

Lexical synonyms- these are words that sound differently, but have close or coinciding meanings. In most cases, synonyms, denoting the same thing, characterize it from different points of view.

For example: linguistics - linguistics, throw - throw, extinguish - extinguish, during - in continuation, hippopotamus - hippo... The words denoting genus-specific relations are not synonyms: flower - chamomile... Words that denote related concepts are not synonyms: house - apartment.

Synonyms are combined into synonymous series, for example: doctor - doctor - healer - aesculapius... In the composition of the synonymous series, a dominant stands out - a word that, in comparison with other members of the series, has the most general meaning, stylistically neutral, having the most free compatibility (in this synonymous series, this word doctor ).

Synonymous series can be different in the number of words: from two to three to ten or more. Words can have stable combinations synonymous with them - phraseological units: to die - to give a soul to God. Phraseologisms can enter into synonymous relationships not only with words, but also with each other: give your soul to God - go to the next world - play the box - drop your skates.

In addition to linguistic synonyms, which were mentioned above, contextual synonyms are also highlighted - words that enter into synonymous relations only in a certain context (for example: say - whisper - blurt out - bark - stutter).

The main functions of synonyms are clarification, substitution, euphemization and opposition.

Clarification based on incomplete coincidence of the meanings of synonymous words: synonyms allow you to "add" missing meanings, to reveal new sides in the designated ( He ran, or rather rushed).

Substitution based on the fact that in a number of contexts the differences between synonyms are erased, and this allows you to avoid repetitions of the same words ( He made a mistake, but his mistake was not noticed).

Euphemisation is called a deliberately inaccurate designation of reality ( the boss is late (= late), he is not far off (= stupid).

Contrast synonyms highlights the differences between synonyms ( She did not walk, but walked).

Synonyms are recorded in special dictionaries - dictionaries of synonyms.

Antonyms- words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings relative to each other, for example: young - old, friendship - enmity, good - bad, leave - come, from - to.

In this definition, it is important to note the following:
1) words of the same part of speech are called antonyms, therefore such words expressing opposite concepts as ugly– handsome;
2) antonyms should have meanings that are related to each other; this means that antonyms are words denoting logically compatible concepts that have in their meanings common part, in relation to which a number of signs are opposed. So, for example, antonyms get up and to go down have a common element of meaning ‘move on an inclined or vertical plane’. These words are contrasted with elements of the meaning ‘up’ and ‘down’.

The meanings of antonyms are opposite. It follows from this that antonyms are mutually exclusive when characterizing the same object: an object cannot be at the same time, for example: hot and cold, big and small, true and false.

Some words can enter into antonymic relations only in a certain context, not being linguistic antonyms, not being realized as words with the opposite meaning outside this context. Such antonyms are called contextual , for example: And we hate and we love by chance, / Without sacrificing anything malice nor love... / And reigns in the soul of some cold secret, / When Fire boils in blood(Lerm.); underlined words outside this context are not antonyms: the word love antonym hatred, at the word heat– cold; the words hate and love from the first line given are linguistic antonyms.

Functions of using antonyms and antonyms in the text are as follows:
1) antithesis - opposition-contrast ( I am stupid and you are smart. Alive, and I'm dumbfounded by M. I. Tsvetaeva) or in the title (“ Thick and thin"A. P. Chekhova," The living and the dead"K. M. Simonov).
2) oxymoron - the combination into a whole of opposite in meaning units of different parts of speech (dead souls, a living corpse, adult children).

Antonyms are recorded in special dictionaries - dictionaries of antonyms.

Outdated vocabulary

Outdated vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms.

Histories- these are words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example: chain mail, corvee, horse tram; modern Saturday, Sunday; socialist competition, Politburo... These words fell out of use, along with the objects, concepts they designated, and passed into passive vocabulary: we know them, but we do not use them in our everyday speech. Histories are used in texts that talk about the past ( fiction, historical research).

Archaisms- these are outdated names of phenomena and concepts existing in our time, for the designation of which other, modern names have arisen. For example: Lanita - cheeks, mirror - mirror, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman.

Obsolescence of words Is a process, and different words can be at different stages of it. Words that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less often than before, are called obsolete ( voucher).

Obsolete word functions varied.

First, they can be used directly to name, designate the corresponding objects, phenomena. Thus, obsolete words are used, for example, in scientific and historical works. In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary is used not only to denote obsolete realities, outdated concepts, but also to create a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in fictional text to indicate the time at which an action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can also perform their own stylistic functions - they can be used to create the solemnity of the text.

Neologisms
Outdated words are contrasted with neologisms - new words, the novelty of which is felt by the speakers.
Neologisms are divided into linguistic and author's.

Linguistic neologisms - these are words that arise as names for new objects, phenomena, concepts that do not yet have names in the language, or as new names for already existing objects or concepts.

Linguistic neologisms arise in the following ways:
1) a new word appears in the language, a new lexical unit. It appears through borrowing ( shopping tour, charter, shaping, image) or the emergence of a new word according to the derivational models existing in the language from the "old" word or neologism-borrowing ( computer - computer, geek, computerization);
2) a word already existing in the language has a new meaning, for example, kettle- a layman with weak skills of something, hatch- paste to correct the text, pirate- unlicensed, shell- garage. In the future, this meaning can come off and form a new homonym word.

Linguistic neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech, many are known and understandable. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be understood as a new word. However, the creation of new words, word creation is also possible in other situations: an artistic word, a situation of friendly communication, the speech of a child who has not yet fully mastered the lexical stock of the Russian language. An adult, poet, writer consciously resorts to word creation in order to make his speech more expressive or to play with the rich word-formation possibilities of the language, the child does this unconsciously. The results of such word creation are called individual (contextual, author's) neologisms... So, we find the words of A.S. Pushkin: fired, küchelbeckerno, V.V. Mayakovsky: love, pedestrian, turn blue, light up.

Sometimes the author's neologisms become real words, are included in the literary language, such as the words: pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, blueprint, included in the Russian language from the works of M.V. Lomonosov, industry, falling in love, absent-mindedness, touching- from the works of N.M. Karamzin, fade away- from F.I.Dostoevsky), mediocrity- from I. Severyanin.

Common and restricted vocabulary

TO common vocabulary includes words used (understood and used) in different linguistic spheres by native speakers regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are the majority of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs (white, flat, speak, good), numerals, pronouns, most of the service words.

TO restricted vocabulary includes words whose use is limited to some locality (dialectisms), profession (special vocabulary), occupation or interests (slang vocabulary).

Dialectisms (dialect words)- these are words that are used mainly by residents of one area.
So the word kuren (House) is used in dialect (dialect) Don Cossacks; rye seedlings called in the north winter , and in the south - green ; winter boots in Siberia they call pimami .

Dialectisms are recorded in special dictionaries of various dialects, the most common of them can be reflected in the explanatory dictionary with the label regional.

Special vocabulary associated with the professional activities of people. It includes terms and professionalisms.

Terms- these are the names of special concepts of science, art, technology, agriculture, etc. The terms are often artificially created using Latin and Greek roots and differ from the "ordinary" words of the language in that they, ideally, are unambiguous in this terminology and do not have synonyms , that is, only one object of a given science should correspond to each term. Each word-term has a strict definition, recorded in special scientific research or terminological dictionaries.

Distinguish between terms generally understood and highly specialized... The meaning of commonly understood terms is also known to a layman. Highly specialized terms are understandable only for specialists.

Here are examples of linguistic terms of different types:
common terms: subject, predicate, suffix, verb;
highly specialized terms: predicate, phoneme.

Terms belong to the literary language and are recorded in special terminological dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries marked special.

It is necessary to distinguish from the terms professionalism- words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes associated with the professional, scientific, production activities of people.

Jargon-professionalisms exist exclusively in the oral speech of people of this profession and are not included in the literary language (for example, among printing workers: a cap – large headline, turn – marriage in the form of a square; at the chauffeurs: steering wheel – steering wheel, brick – no-entry sign). If professionalisms are included in dictionaries, they are accompanied by an indication of the scope of use ( in the speech of sailors, in the speech of fishermen etc.)

Restricted vocabulary also includes jargon- words used by people of certain interests, occupations, habits.

So, for example, there are jargons of schoolchildren, students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc. For example, in student jargon tail – failed exam, pass, hostel – hostel, spur , bomb – varieties of cheat sheets, in the jargon of schoolchildren laces , ancestors , Rodaki – parents, cake , bobblehead , bump , pepper , people , dude , cartilage , shnyaga – guy... Words that are included in different jargons form an interjargon ( schmuck, funny, cool, party).

Besides the term jargon, there are also the terms "argo" and "slang".

Argo Is a specially classified language. In previous centuries in Russia there were argos of wandering merchants - peddlers, professional fundraisers, etc. Now we can talk about thieves argos ( feather – knife, a gun – gun).

Slang- this is a linguistic environment of oral communication that is different from the norm of the literary language, uniting a large group of people. A significant difference between slang and jargon is the increased emotionality of slang and the lack of selectivity in it of objects for naming with the help of special words: we use slang in almost all speech situations in informal oral communication of people. So, we can talk about youth slang - a means of informal communication of young people aged about 12 to 30 years old (Examples of slang: claudia - keyboard, ancestors - parents).

Slang and argotic vocabulary is outside the literary language and is recorded only in special dictionaries.

Borrowed vocabulary

In different eras, borrowings from other languages ​​penetrated into the Russian vocabulary. For borrowing, a condition is necessary - the presence of linguistic contacts between peoples due to trade, wars, cultural interaction, etc.

Borrowings are used to name new realities and to rename old ones.

The reasons for borrowing words are:
1) the need to name a new reality: leggings, grant, digest, skateboard, scotch tape;
2) the need to distinguish between meaningfully close, but still different concepts: image– image (the second word has a semantic component not contained in the first word ‘purposefully create’), murderer– killer (payed assassin);
3) the tendency to replace a word combination with a word: summit – summit meeting, know-how – Hi-tech, electorate – population of voters;
4) striving for homogeneity of terminology or jargon according to the source of origin (in Russian there were words for computers, eweemschik but with the spread personal computers and the emergence of a large number of borrowed from of English language computer terms, these words have been replaced by words a computer, geek);
5) striving for an increase in the status of the named object; in certain periods, there is a great social prestige of a foreign language word, as if raising the rank of the phenomenon called, cf. synonymous words: presentation – performance, exclusive – exceptional, consulting – counseling, shop– shop;

Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

Phraseologisms

Phraseologism- a stable combination of words, constant in composition and meaning, reproduced in speech as a ready-made unit.
Phraseological units are studied in lexicology, and not in syntax, because in many respects phraseological units are closer to a word than to a phrase: in most cases, a phraseological unit is equal to a word in its meaning, is its equivalent ( order to live long = die ), phraseological units are a single member of the sentence (He came to the nodding analysis - circumstance, compare: He came late), and most importantly, as part of a free phrase, each word retains its meaning, the words in them can be rearranged or replaced with others, the phraseological unit is distinguished by the constancy of its composition, is reproduced in speech as a ready-made unit, the meaning of most phraseological units does not equal the sum of the meanings of its constituent components.

By the structure of phraseological units can be phrases ( sit in a galosh, without a king in your head) or sentences ( grandma said in two when the cancer on the mountain whistles).

Phraseologisms, like words, can be characterized in terms of their meaning (unambiguous and ambiguous), the relationships in which they enter among themselves and with words, origin, stylistic coloring.

Most of the words of the Russian language, as already mentioned, are polysemantic; most phraseological units, on the contrary, are unambiguous, but polysemous ones are extremely rare, for example: gather strength : 1) relax, 2) overcome fear.

Homonym phraseological units are also rare; as an example, homonymy phraseological units can be cited:

let the cock go :
1) – fake,
2) – set fire.

Both phraseological units belong to the second group, that is, their meaning is due to a metaphorical rethinking of the meaning of a free phrase; the original is the same object, however, the basis of the rethinking was formed by its different characteristics - the voice in the first case and the color in the second.
Phraseologisms are sometimes homonymous with free combinations of words (cf .: He has money chickens do not peck. – Chickens do not peck this feed).

Like words, phraseological units can enter into synonymous and antonymic relations with each other, for example: not to see and gouge out your eyes - very dark- synonyms, the cat cried - few and endless end - many- antonyms.

By origin, phraseological units can be originally Russian ( neither fish nor meat, nor zgi can be seen) and borrowed ( byword- Old Church Slavonic; blue stocking- from English, word-by-word translation – tracing paper ; terra incognita- from Latin).

Most of the phraseological units are stylistically colored, and most of the phraseological units belong to colloquial ( bite your elbows, grated roll, the first pancake is lumpy) and vernacular ( discard hooves, rage with fat, the gut is thin), however, there are also high-style phraseological units (do not hesitate, give God your soul, sink into oblivion).

Phraseologisms are reflected in special dictionaries that interpret their meaning and indicate the scope of use, as well as in explanatory dictionaries at the end of a dictionary entry after the? Sign. The largest number of phraseological units is reflected in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dal.

Sometimes they also allocate phraseological expressions... These are separable and decomposable phrases and sentences, the meaning of which is made up of the meanings of the words that constitute them, but they have one similarity with phraseological units - the constancy of the composition, reproducibility in speech as ready-made units. These are proverbs, sayings, "winged words", quotes from famous works of art, for example: " Happy hours are not observed"- from" Woe from Wit "by A. Griboyedov.

Lexical parsing of a word

Lexical parsing of a word is carried out according to the following plan:
1. The lexical meaning of the word in this context.
2. Unambiguous or ambiguous.
3. Used literally or figuratively.
4. Does it have homonyms.
5. Does it have synonyms (if yes, which ones).
6. Does it have antonyms (if yes, which ones).
7. Originally Russian or borrowed.
8. Common or not (dialectal, special).
9. Included in active or passive vocabulary.
10. In what style of speech is it mainly used.

Sample lexical parsing

The roots and rhizomes of Eleutherococcus collected in autumn (V. Yagodka) are used for medicinal purposes.

Root... In this sentence, the word “ root" has the meaning " the underground part of the plant, which serves to strengthen it in the soil and absorb water and nutrients from it”. Polysemous, used in the sentence in its direct meaning. It has no homonyms, synonyms, antonyms in this meaning. Primordially Russian, common, is included in the active vocabulary. Used in all styles of speech.

Having completed their operations, the fronts, one after another, stopped at the lines reached by the spring. (K. Simonov)

Operation... In this sentence, the word means " a series of strategic actions carried out during offensive or defensive battles". The word is ambiguous:

a) surgical operation;
b) a trading operation;
c) financial transaction;
d) postal operations.

Used in the sentence in a direct meaning. Synonymous row: operation, combat, battle, military action... Homonyms, antonyms in this meaning does not have. The word is borrowed from Latin. The word of professional vocabulary (military terminology). The word is not outdated, it is included in the active dictionary of the Russian language.

Often we don't even think about how diverse the Russian language is. Learning your native language is quite an exciting experience. Even from school, we know that there are whole sections that study our language. For example, what is vocabulary in Russian, every person with a secondary school education should know.

What vocabulary studies in Russian

The very definition of "vocabulary" means the vocabulary of the language. In turn, the branch of science that studies vocabulary is called lexicology. The basis of vocabulary, as mentioned earlier, is the word.

A word is a special unit of the Russian language, which serves as the name for many objects, phenomena, as well as their signs and properties. This category contains grammar and phonetics. Perhaps an important feature of the word comes down to its integrity in speech, and indivisibility in pronunciation.

Each of us uses a certain number of words in our speech. From what they are and how many of them, you can judge the vocabulary of a person. It is also called a lexicon. He can be rich and poor.

Sources of vocabulary improvement

There are several main sources for replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

These include:

• Words that are formed from constituent parts such as root, suffix, prefix.
• Borrowed - these are words that come to us from other countries, nationalities and other sources.

We have decided what vocabulary means, now we need to figure out what words are, where they come from and what to do to improve your vocabulary.

Classification of words

Words in Russian can be classified according to the following criteria:

• Unambiguous use and ambiguity.
• Direct and figurative meaning of the word.
• According to the source of the word.
• By sphere of use.

There are unambiguous words. As a rule, these are words that designate a specific subject and have a single lexical designation. There are few such examples in Russian. Basically, these can be any scientific terms, or proper names, as well as words that appeared not so long ago that came from somewhere.

A feature of the Russian language is that earlier many polysemous words had only one interpretation. Now, when they can be interpreted in different ways, in the dictionary in the first place is always the designation of the main concept, and then the secondary ones.

The meaning of words in Russian

Not all of us know what vocabulary means in terms of the use of a word in context. Exists direct meaning a word that refers to a phenomenon of objective reality, it is characterized by stability. The figurative meaning of the word arises when the name of an object is transferred or is on another, similar to something.

The following groups of words can be distinguished:

• Homonyms are words that are identical in pronunciation, but have different interpretations.
• Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning. They are used to diversify your speech and make it more interesting and detailed.
• Antonyms are words - oppositions in meaning. Like synonyms, they are used for greater detail and expressiveness of what is said.

The origin of words in Russian

All words in Russian by origin are divided into:

• Russian words (primordially Russian).
• Borrowed.

Primordially Russian words originated from East Slavic, European and Russian words proper. In turn, borrowed words came to us from Slavic and non-Slavic languages.

Depending on how the society, the culture in it changes, there are also changes in the vocabulary of people. Some words that were previously used with enviable constancy can now be forgotten. There are times when more and more often you hear from the lips of some people some long-forgotten words.

Those words that are not used and have gone out of use are called obsolete. But they are being replaced by neologisms. These are words that can be called new. Sometimes they take root, and sometimes they are forgotten, without receiving due attention in terms of their use.

Scope of the use of words in the Russian language

There are both commonly used words in the Russian language and those with limited scope of use. The sphere of limited use of the vocabulary includes such words as:

• Dialectisms are words that refer to a particular nationality.
• Professionalisms are words from certain areas of science and industry.
• Slangs are words specific to a specific group of people.

In conclusion, I would like to note that vocabulary is an important section of the Russian language. To understand and navigate in it is very important for a modern person. The future opinion about a person depends on at what moments and under what circumstances certain words were used.

The section is very easy to use. In the proposed field, just enter the desired word, and we will give you a list of its meanings. I would like to note that our site provides data from various sources - encyclopedic, explanatory, word-formation dictionaries. Also here you can get acquainted with examples of the use of the word you entered.

The meaning of the word vocabulary

vocabulary in the crossword dictionary

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

vocabulary

vocabulary, pl. no, well. (from the Greek lexikos - vocabulary) (philol.). A set of words language, dialect, works of some kind, writer, etc .; dictionary in 2 digits. Russian vocabulary by L. Pushkin.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.

vocabulary

And, well. The vocabulary of the language, what n. his style, scope, as well as anyone's. works, a separate work. Russian l. Common l. L. Pushkin.

adj. lexical, th, th.

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

vocabulary

LEXICO (from the Greek lexikos - referring to the word)

the whole set of words, the vocabulary of the language.

A set of words characteristic of a given version of speech (vocabulary everyday, military, children's, etc.), of one or another stylistic layer (vocabulary is neutral, vernacular, etc.).

Vocabulary

(from Greek lexikós - referring to a word), a set of words, a vocabulary of a language. Lexicon of any language or dialect is studied by lexicology and semasiology, and lexicon of writers and individual works is studied by stylistics and poetics. L. of any language forms a complex system; words in it are related to each other both by sound form (see Homonyms, Paronyms) and by meanings (see Synonyms, Antonyms), and separate groups of words form the so-called thematic groups(for example, the names of vehicles, terms of kinship, etc.). L. is heterogeneous from the point of view of stylistics, since it contains not only "neutral" words (for example, in Russian: "table", "speak", "good", "he", "three", etc.), but and those whose use is differently limited by the style of the language itself (for example, "eyes", "burkaly", "hoist", "okoyom", "work hard", dialectal "gashnik", jargon "first-grader", "buhoy", etc. etc.). Phraseology is directly related to the language of the language. many words form stable combinations with the specific meanings of the whole and its parts ("quicklime", "give in the hands", "eat the dog", etc.). L. the most developed languages ​​have many hundreds of thousands of words (including tsrminological systems). From a historical point of view, L. usually includes words of very different origins; this reflects the direct and mediated contacts of a given nation with other nations. In the last centuries and especially since the end of the 19th century. fast pace professional science is growing - the terminology of special disciplines. In the Indo-European languages, the so-called. international linguistics and terminology from Greek and Latin morphemes (for example, in Russian: "atom", "method", "communism", "biology", "linguistics", "constitution", "photosynthesis", "cyclotron", " cosmodrome "," phoneme "and similar words). L. includes both obsolete words: historicisms (Russian "visor", "NEP") and archaisms (see, for example, Russian "so", "vyya", "breg", "young"; "language" in the meaning of "people "), ≈ and neologisms (see, for example, Russian" cosmovision "," designer "," programmer ").

Lit .: Vinogradov VV, Basic types of lexical meanings of words, "Questions of Linguistics", 1953, ╧ 5; Reznikov L. O., Concept and word, L., 1958; Ufimtseva AA, Experience in studying vocabulary as a system, M., 1962; Kalinin A, V., Vocabulary of the Russian language, 2nd ed., M., 1971; Shmelev DN, Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary, M., 1973; Matoré G., La méthode en lexicologie. P., 1953.

Wikipedia

Vocabulary

Vocabulary- a set of words of a particular language, parts of a language or words that a particular person or group of people knows. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects, phenomena.

The vocabulary of the language is the most open and mobile area of ​​the language. New words continuously enter into it and old ones gradually leave. The growing sphere of human knowledge, first of all, is fixed in words and their meanings, due to which there are more and more lexical acquisitions in the language. Education, science, the latest technologies, information from other cultures - all this forms a new type of modern society, in which a new language style is being formed - the style of the era of information development.

Vocabulary- the entire vocabulary of the language, in which the active and passive components are distinguished.

• Archaisms are outdated words.
• Neologisms are new words.

• Homonyms - words that are different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling
• Antonyms are opposite in meaning.
• Synonyms - similar in meaning
• Unambiguous words are words that have the same meaning.
• Polysemous words are words that have two or more meanings.

Speech styles

Art

Fiction of the writer, portrait, description of characters, dialogue, monologue

No fiction

Official papers

Colloquial

Literary norms are not followed

Journalistic

All articles in newspapers and magazines

Types of speech

Description

Narration

Reasoning

Description of an object, phenomenon, etc.

holistic story

reasoning about something

Examples of the use of the word vocabulary in literature.

Archaization was consistently eliminated, simplified and modernized vocabulary.

And even now, in this prelude, one can feel that the impossible, over which Bataille meditated, will always have this form: how, having exhausted the discourse of philosophy, to write into vocabulary and the syntax of some language - ours, which was also the language of philosophy - that, nevertheless, goes beyond the framework, does not fit into the opposition of concepts governed by this generally accepted logic?

Suffice it to recall, after all, that the old sympathetic theory spoke in a vocabulary of correspondences, neighborhoods, homology - terms for which the space of anatomy can hardly offer a corresponding vocabulary.

Feeling that a significant part of the path had been covered, having lost friends and loved ones, he felt that it was not just time, a generation, close people that was going away - along with them, rules, habits, style, manners, traditions disappear forever, vocabulary, humor, songs, even the landscape, atmosphere and life, and this mournful list the foreman Dasaev could continue indefinitely, too much was unreasonably and hastily forced out of life.

Scraps of sentences, phrases, participles and abnormal vocabulary.

In Malory's language, there are many borrowings from French - this is a characteristic element of English vocabulary after the Norman conquest.

Unaccustomed vocabulary Neruda, his adherence to the coarse, harsh word, corresponds, firstly, to the nature of the rich, and therefore inexhaustible and open, and, secondly, to his deep rejection of verbal sophistication.

This ideal will be proclaimed sometimes by the dryly imperative language of orders and legalizations, now by the pompous vocabulary manifestos, now by the shouts of a military command, then, finally, by the solemn clanging of piitical lyres.

Almost every craft or occupation lent to its own vocabulary erotic allegories - then this was the same as always.

However, both the rhythm of vers libre and Plath's poetic dictionary with its contrast between archaized or bookish vocabulary and elements of slang include her work in the panorama of the latest poetry in the United States.

Considering everything that he managed to use during the ceremony, he had to leave the heights of the Pompous Khozalikhsky and switch to a conversational vocabulary.

Indeed, Derrida thickly equips her text with German, Greek, Latin, sometimes Hebrew words, expressions and philosophical terms, terminological vocabulary specific to a wide variety of areas of knowledge.

In such circumstances, the narrator inevitably experiences a strong temptation to adapt his diction to some average normative literary vocabulary, ennobled by its long-term use.

There are changes in the composition vocabulary, in their sound shell and in their meanings, the presence of borrowings and frequent mistakes of the creators of words as factors that complicate etymological analysis.

The Russian language is great and boundless. He is beautiful and multifaceted. What is vocabulary in Russian? and what are his signs?

Vocabulary is absolutely all the words of a certain language. Lexicology is a subject studying which in any language is quite mobile, since it reacts to all changes in the life of society.

The main subject of study is the word itself. Its signs are the presence of a sound form, lexical and grammatical meaning. Only independent parts of speech have lexical meaning, with the exception of pronouns and proper nouns.

Variety of vocabulary and its features

There are such sections of vocabulary as semasiology, onomasiology, etymology, phraseology, onomastics, and lexicography. The vocabulary features are quite diverse.

It has a historical character, consists of subsystems, is characterized by hierarchical, paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations, and also has a large number of units, a close connection with the context and an open system.

The social structure of the Russian language

What is vocabulary in Russian is a rather ambiguous question. The fact is that each stratum of society has its own language. There are five types of national jargon, dialects, and professional and literary vocabulary.

What is a codified language?

Literary language is the highest form of language and the basis of speech culture. It is characterized by normativity, stylistic differentiation, polyfunctionality and the highest social prestige. It is a complete opposition to uncodified subsystems, which include dialects, vernacular, slang, and jargon.

What is language normativity?

Normativeness is the presence of orthoepic, spelling, lexical, grammatical and stylistic norms. For example, in the east of Ukraine, many say brala and understand. Such stress is a violation. In the Russian literary language, the norms are enshrined in dictionaries and reference books. The codified language is used in all areas of activity and exists in different functional styles.

Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of origin

The lexical stock of the Russian language is the result of a long historical development. At the moment, the language contains many ancient, by origin, words, such as: bread, water, oak and many others. is divided into two groups - primordially Russian and borrowed. - these are most often neologisms. There are many reasons for borrowing. The most popular of them are an attempt to shorten the original Russian word, the historical contact of peoples and the absence in the vocabulary of a name for a new phenomenon or object.

Uncodified vocabulary

Profanity is a vocabulary that lacks literary norms.

Such vocabulary includes vernacular, rude expressive words, including obscene language, vulgarisms, dialectisms, argot, jargon, and also slang.

Common speech is a vocabulary that does not have a systemic character. It is usually used by persons who do not fully know the norms of the literary language. Common speech includes crudely expressive words. For example, take a nap ‘sleep’; bullshit ‘lie’ and others. Such a lexical group is characterized by the expression of the relationship to the designated.

Swearing, as well as obscene vocabulary, is one of the most important signs of vernacular. With the help of mats, the bearer of vernacular emphasizes his irritation or readiness for action. Obscene language is characterized by swear words that are used to express a reaction to an unexpected situation.

Dialects, argot and jargon

Dialectisms are also profanities that are used in a certain territory. They are divided into 6 types - phonetic, lexical, semantic, ethnographic, phraseological and grammatical. Argo is used for self-affirmation in the criminal zone. Argotisms include such words - feather ‘knife’, sew ‘kill’ and others. Slang is also referred to as profanity. This is a kind of national language used by people with some common social characteristic. Jargon also includes professionalism. Such words are used by people of any particular profession.

The question of what is vocabulary in Russian is rather complicated. It is known that it is the Russian language that is one of the most difficult to learn. In order to learn how to speak beautifully, you need to diligently study and also memorize all the norms of the literary language. You should exclude vernaculars, dialectisms, and also swear words from your vocabulary as much as possible. Using literary language, your speech will sound incredibly beautiful and will attract others.