What is tdm at the University of Bologna. Italian universities: how to apply

The university in Bologna began to emerge at the end of the 21st century, when teachers of logic, rhetoric, and grammar turned to law. The year 1088 is considered the beginning of independent and church-free teaching in Bologna. During this period, Irnerius became a significant figure. His work in the systematization of legal Roman materials crossed the boundaries of the city.

At first, university tuition in Italy was paid for by students. They raised money in order to compensate teachers for their work. The collection was carried out on a voluntary basis, because the science given by God could not be sold. Gradually, the university in Bologna turned into a center of science, and teachers began to receive real salaries.

Features of occurrence

The emergence of the university in the Italian city of Bologna was facilitated by the intense and serious "struggle for investiture", which was waged between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII. At that time, the sovereigns of Christian countries appointed priests and bishops at will, and Pope Gregory VII decided to proclaim the supremacy of the church over secular power, and he looked for evidence to justify his decision in the history of Christianity. By that time, Bologna already had a “liberal arts” school, which was popular in the 10th and 11th centuries. Pupils studied Roman law and rhetoric in it as additional classes. In the writings of the 13th century Bologna jurist Godefroy there is historical information on the opening of a legal special school at the personal request of Countess Matilda, who was the ruler of Tuscany and Lombardy, a supporter of the Pope.

Struggle for influence

The 11-12 centuries saw a turning point in European politics. It was then that the relationship between church and state was established. In the struggle, the basis was made up of legal issues, therefore, the study of Justinian's law became the basis for the self-awareness of the Empire.

In 1158 Martino, Bulgaro, Ugo, Jacopo invited Federico I Barbarossa to his meeting. The experts had to demonstrate the observance of political freedoms in the empire. Three of them (besides Martino) supported the Empire, expressed their recognition of the Roman law. Federico I Barbarossa passed a law according to which the school became a society of students, headed by a teacher. The empire promised such institutions, the teacher, protection from political claims.

The University of Bologna has become a place that is absolutely free from the influence of the authorities. This educational institution has outlived its protector. On the part of the Commune, there were attempts to control this educational institution, but the students, in order to resist such pressure, united into one team.

The thirteenth century was a time of contrasts. The University of Bologna has managed to overcome thousands of difficulties, it has always fought for autonomy, resisted the political power, which viewed it as a symbol of prestige. At that time, there were about two thousand students in Bologna.

In the 14th century, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, logic, grammar, rhetoric, and theology began to be studied within its walls.

Talented students and teachers

The first university in Bologna is proud of the fact that such famous personalities as Francesco Petrarca, Chino Pistoia, Dante Alighieri, Cecco d'Ascoli, Enzo, Guido Guinizelli, Colluccio Salutati, Salimbene Parmsky, and others came out of its walls.

Since the fifteenth century, teaching has been in Hebrew and Greek, and a century later in Bologna, students have been pursuing experimental sciences. The laws of nature were taught by the philosopher Pietro Pomponazzi.

The philosopher taught the laws of nature, despite his beliefs in theology and philosophy. A significant contribution to the pharmacopoeia was made by Ulysses Aldrovandi, who studies fossils. It was he who created their detailed classification.

In the 16th century, Gaspare Tagliacozzi was the first to study plastic surgery. He owns serious research in this area, which became the basis for the development of medicine.

The University of Bologna gradually developed. Even in the Middle Ages, Italy was proud of such eminent personalities as Paracelsus, Thomas Beckett, Albrecht Durer, Raimund de Peñafort, Carlo Borromeo, Carlo Goldoni, Torquato Tasso. It was here that Leon Baptiste Alberti and Pico Mirandola studied canon law. Nicolaus Copernicus studied papal law in Bologna even before he began his fundamental research in the field of astronomy. During the industrial revolution, the university has a beneficial effect on the development of technology and science. During this period, the works of Luigi Galvani appeared, who, along with Alexander Volt, Henry Cavendish, Benjamin Franklin, became the founder of modern electrochemistry.

The era of the rise

During the creation of the Italian state, the University of Bologna was actively developing. Italy acquires such important figures as Giovanni Pascoli, Giacomo Chamician, Giovanni Capellini, Augusto Murri, Augusto Rigi, Federigo Henriquez, Giosue Carducci. At the end of the nineteenth century, the university retains its importance on the world cultural scene. He holds this position until the interval between the two wars, and is rightfully included in the oldest universities in Italy. Time has no power over this Italian “forge of talents”.

Modernity

In 1988, the University of Bologna celebrated its 900th anniversary. On this occasion, the faculties received 430 rectors from different parts of our planet. Alma mater of all universities and is currently considered the main scientific center international scale, retains the primacy in the implementation of research projects.

According to the classification compiled by the QS World University Rankings, the University of Bologna is ranked 182 in the world. A similar situation educational institution in the ranking indicates a high level of teaching. Bologna is a city in Italy that is rightfully proud of this temple of science.

University structure

At the moment, the University of Bologna has about 85,000 students. This educational institution has an unusual structure - "multicampus", which includes five institutions in cities:

  • Bologna;
  • Forli;
  • Cesene;
  • Ravenna;
  • Rimini.

What else is Bologna proud of? The Italian region became the first in the country to open a branch of the university outside the country - postgraduate courses were taught in Buenos Aires, contributing to the deepening of various aspects of the relationship between the European Union and Latin America.

The educational programs of this higher educational institution are related to research in various fields of knowledge. The courses are structured in such a way that they fully meet all the demands of the labor market. The University of Bologna pays special attention to international relations.

The activities of laboratories and research centers, the high level of results obtained allow this educational institution to take an active part in prestigious scientific competitions and conferences every year.

Applicants who enter the University of Bologna can count on scholarships and contracts that involve living and studying abroad.

University faculties

Currently, this prestigious educational institution in Italy includes several faculties in the structure:

  • architectural;
  • agrarian;
  • economic (in Bologna, Forlì, Rimini);
  • industrial chemical;
  • Faculty of Preservation of Cultural Heritage;
  • legal;
  • pharmaceutical;
  • engineering (Bologna, Cesena);
  • veterinary;
  • foreign languages and literature;
  • psychological;
  • veterinary;
  • medical and surgical;
  • communications;
  • physical culture;
  • natural science and mathematics;
  • political sciences;
  • graduate School modern languages;
  • statistical sciences.

Contacts and addresses

This educational institution is located in Bologna on Giamboni Street, along which thousands of students pass every day. In this area, there are many places that are associated with the university: stands, cafes, auditoriums. Visiting this street allows you to understand the historical value of the city.

Number 13 has a central building, which houses the administration. It is located opposite the Poggi Palace. There is an auditorium in this building dedicated to Carducci, who once listened here to lectures on Italian literature.

The building of the First University rises on Galvani Square. The library of the Commune has been located in the palace since 1838, but the main treasure is located in. Today it is the main proof of the university tradition in Bologna.

University specifics

Due to the fact that this institution of higher education was founded in the twelfth century, it is rightfully called one of the oldest in Europe. The University of Bologna is characterized by two distinctive features:

  • it was not an association of a professor to whom students who came to lectures were supposed to obey;
  • the listeners' association had the right to choose the leaders to whom the professors were subordinate.

Bologna students were divided into two groups:

  • "Ultramontans" who arrived in Italy from other countries;
  • "Citramontans" who were residents of Italy.

Each group elected on an annual basis a rector and a board of representatives of different nationalities who were in charge of the university jurisdiction.

Professors were chosen by students for a certain period, they received a certain fee, taught only in Bologna.

According to their status, they were free only in classes with students. During lectures and seminars, professors could demonstrate their pedagogical talent and personal qualities.

Another feature of the University of Bologna was that it became a law school. In addition to Roman and canon law, medicine and the free arts were taught within the walls of this Italian educational institution.

Conclusion

During the period of its existence, the Bologna school managed to have a significant impact not only on Italy, but also on the whole Western Europe.

The positive reputation of the professors of Bologna made it possible to consider this educational institution as a place of concentration of Roman law.

Currently, the University of Bologna is considered the oldest educational institution in the world, whose history has not been interrupted from the period of its foundation to the present. Every year, thousands of students from different parts of the world strive to Bologna in the hope of becoming students of this elite educational institution.

Founded in 1088, it is the oldest university in the world that has never stopped studying. Copernicus, Petrarch and Dante studied here, according to the apt expression of the latter, Bologna is still called la grassa, la rossa and la dotta, which means fat, red, scientist.
Thanks to the University, the city in the Middle Ages was unusually developed and possessed, as we say now, an excellent infrastructure. Bologna owes almost all its virtues to its students, and now I'm not even talking about the atmosphere of youth and joy that reigns in the city, but about such banal and well-known attractions as covered galleries and excellent cuisine.
Galleries were created thanks to the desire of home owners to get more profit from renting out housing. Expanding the upper floors, they increased the area of ​​the house, propping up the surplus with columns. The construction of the galleries was at first illegal, but then the mood of the authorities changed and a rule was even introduced on the minimum span height - 2 m 66 cm, which is enough for a rider on a horse. The first galleries were, of course, wooden, some of them have survived to our time. From the same historical period, the current law that the owner of the house is responsible for the space under the galleries comes from the same historical period, namely, he must keep it clean and leave it free for the movement of people. However, I already wrote about this.
Cooking also developed under the influence of the students. It should be noted that among the students there were people who were not so much young as experienced, not so much poor as well-to-do, so their tastes and needs were appropriate. It is interesting that at first the university was run not by teachers, but by students - they themselves chose what, how and when to study, and the teachers were in a subordinate position. Henry Morton writes about this in his “Walks in the North of Italy. From Milan to Rome ", aptly characterizing the relationship between students and teachers as a" master-servant "relationship. The chefs also tried to meet the needs of the students, inventing new dishes for everyday meals and various feasts.
All this funny student life for a long time passed outside the walls of the University simply because it did not have any walls. Classes were held in squares, in cafes, in churches, in the homes of teachers, and in the end it was decided to give the Alma Mater Studiorum a separate building. This is the palazzo dell "Archiginnasio, located next to the piazza Maggiore. I was told that the university premises were supposed to adjoin the cathedral of San Petronio on the piazza Maggiore, but Pope Pius IV stopped construction so that the cathedral would not outgrow the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, and the students and gave the teachers a separate building where the university was located from 1563 to 1805. The inner courtyard of the palazzo is an example of typical Bolognese architecture with its recognizable columns and vaulted galleries. (the entrance here, by the way, is free), then you can see not only the coats of arms, but also cute signs of ancient times - shops, carved doors, sculptural groups. conditions.
In the same building, there is a surprisingly beautiful auditorium, just the kind that one imagines when thinking of a medieval university - the Teatro Anatomico, a wooden amphitheater with a marble table for dissecting corpses in the middle. The theater worked only in the cold months, anyone could watch the process. After Bologna came under the rule of the pope, the dissection of corpses was prohibited and the operation of steel on wax and wood models was prohibited. The audience is decorated with the same (or similar) figures. What particularly surprised me was that reference Information, attached to the doors of the auditorium, was also available in Russian. Let me remind you that the entrance to the Teatro Anatomico, like most municipal museums in the city, is free.
The University is now located in a dozen different buildings, centered mainly on via Zamboni, which starts near the Two Towers (Due Torri). The street begins with excellent gelateria (from gelato - ice cream) "Gianni", which always has a crowd of people. I really love the Funivia jelly on piazza Cavour more, and especially the combination of yoghurt and strawberry ice cream. Girls, even those on a diet, absolutely need to walk in gelatin, this source of excellent plastic ice cream scoops, which are so convenient for getting all kinds of cosmetic things from jars. Personally, I brought a dozen of these multi-colored spatulas from Italy.
If you walk a little along via Zamboni, then on the left side there will be a cafe of the same name, where we often went for an aperitif with the school. Unlike many other cafes in the city, they do not feed on tasteless sausages here, offering rather tolerable variations on the theme of Italian cuisine for a snack. In general, the entire via Zamboni is full of different restaurants, bars and clubs, so life here is in full swing around the clock. If you walk down the street to piazza Verdi and turn left again, then literally 15 meters later you will see the Punto gusto establishment, opened by my teacher's boyfriend Lucia. Nicola is a Sicilian, so his arancini are real. If you are in Bologna, say hello to him!
To see the buildings in which the faculties are located, you need to carefully look at the nameplates attached to them. It is a bit of a pity that the University does not have a single architectural symbol, like, for example, Moscow State University, for replication on T-shirts and mugs. They are usually printed with the round emblem of the University, and you can buy these souvenirs in a shop on the piazza Maggiore.

Courtyard of the palazzo dell "Archiginnasio ...

and its ceiling painted with coats of arms.

In the same place.

Inside.

Teatro Anatomico.

Eerie figures ...


Marble table.

One of the oldest buildings in the city. This is what the extended upper floors looked like.

Another old building.

Another example of wooden columns.

Via Rizzoli.

An intermediate option.

This is how it looks now.


In the student quarter.

It is rightfully considered the "university center" of the country. There is also a more amusing characteristic of the province - Smart, Red, Fat.

This is how the city was characterized because of the considerable number of educational institutions on the territory, for the color of the roofs of buildings, and, finally, for the delicious food prepared in local restaurants.

Italy is a country with a centuries-old culture, rich nature, developed architectural skill, so almost every city in the country is famous for its sights. And our province is no exception! In the city of Bologna, the tourists will see the following attractions.

The history of the University of Bologna dates back to the 2nd century. it was founded in 1088. It is considered one of the largest and most famous European universities since the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages, the University of Bologna was called Studium; the offspring of influential families around the globe sought to study here. The university gave education to such scientific luminaries as Erasmus of Rotterdam, Paracelsus, Albrecht Durer, Dante Alighieri, Salimbene Parma, who later became famous.

The University of Bologna is considered one of the largest and most famous European universities since the Middle Ages

Gradually, university professors, including Irnerius, began to specialize in law, and as a result, the legal theories cultivated here began to be accepted and used throughout the country.

From the 14th century. higher educational institution of the city of Bologna - a local university, in addition to jurisprudence, organized on its territory the following faculties: astronomy, philosophy, medicine, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, grammar.

A little later, theology was included in the list of disciplines. The university currently consists of five institutions located in different parts of Italy. Therefore, there is no definite answer to the question of where the University of Bologna is located. Faculties higher institution teach students a total of about 85 thousand people, in the following cities: Bologna, Rimini, Cesena, and Forlì.

You can take a virtual tour of the campus by watching the video:

Students are trained in such areas as jurisprudence, agriculture, preservation of cultural heritage, psychology, communication, politics, etc. The main building of the university is located on st. Zamboni, 33, tel. +39 051.209.91.11 / 93.70. You can find out the details you are interested in about the University of Bologna by visiting the official website: www.unibo.it.

Temples

What else can you see in Bologna? In the Middle Ages, a considerable number of churches were erected on the territory of the city, each of which can rightfully be called an object of the country's cultural heritage.

Basilica of St. Petronius

One of the largest temples in the world, located in the central square of Bologna - Maggiore. The basilica was built for a long time, for more than one century.

The construction of an original temple in the Gothic style began in the 14th century, and the construction and decoration were completed only in the 17th century.

It is interesting that the church is built in the form of an ancient Latin cross, among its creators are such famous architects as Andre Palladio, Giacomo Barozzi di Vignola, Antonio di Vicenza.

The Basilica of St. Petronius is located in the Piazza Maggiore

The exterior of the church walls is also made in the Gothic style, famous for its strict geometry of the pattern. From the inside, the cathedral is decorated with works of famous painters: "Consecration of Christ with 4 Saints" by A. Aspertini, "The Mysterious Wedding of St. Catherine" by F. Lippi, "Madonna with Saints" by L. Costa Jr. other.

An ancient relic of the 15th century, which has been repeatedly attacked, deserves special attention.

This is a fresco with the Islamic saint Magomed, depicted, according to the plot of the picture, among the inhabitants of Hell, which religious Islamic fans who ended up in Bologna tried to destroy.

What the Basilica of St. Petronius looks like inside - see the video:

After the Middle Ages, the city of Bologna used the building of the Basilica of San Petronio for social and political purposes, and the local court and the city council were located here.

Only by the 20s of the last century, prayer chants sounded in the church again.

You can visit the cathedral every day from 7-30 to 12-45 hours, and in the afternoon from 15 to 18 hours.

Monastery complex of Santo Stefano

St. Stephen's Cathedral consists of 7 buildings that form a temple complex. According to legend, it was Saint Petronius, inspired by holy thoughts, who wished to reproduce the monuments of the seven main Jerusalem shrines.

The monastery complex of Santo Stefano consists of 7 buildings

So, the churches that are part of the San Stefano complex bear the names: Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Cathedral of John the Baptist, Church of the Holy Trinity, Cathedral of the Martyrs Agricola and Vitaly, Pilate's courtyard and the monastery. Visiting hours for the Basilica in Piazza San Stefano are the same as for the Church of St. Petronius.

Temple of the Madonna of Saint Luke

Built on a hill of about 250-300 m, "Guard Hill". The name of the church was given by the artwork of the work of St. Luke the Evangelist - Madonna and Child, brought into the city by a pilgrim from Greece.

It was entrusted to carry the honorable burden to the Guard Hill, whose image takes place on the icon, which was done.

The basilica was erected later, specifically to store the shrine.

The Church of the Madonna of St. Luke was built on the Sentry Hill

The church is located outside the city; you can get to the cathedral by making your way through a gallery of 666 arches, with a total length of about 4 meters, leading from the Zaragoza gate. The entrance ticket costs 10 euros.

What else to see in Bologna?

If you are in the province of Bologna for a little more than 1 day, then be sure to see the rest of the city's relics and monuments. What can you see in Bologna in 2 or more days?
These are the cities, towers and palaces famous all over the world.

National Pinakothek

Keeps the largest collections of works by Italian painters known throughout the world. The National Pinacoteca of Bologna offers tourists the works of art created by the famous Titian, A. Coracci, L. Costa, G. Reni, Paramigiano, Raphael, on whose life the Italian city of Bologna has left its mark.

The National Pinakothek houses the largest collections of works by Italian painters

The museum is located on 56 Belle Artie Street, open from 9 to 19 hours daily, except Mondays. The ticket price ranges from 2 to 4 euros.

Archaeological Museum

It was formed in the 19th century, in 1881. It is famous for its exhibitions of archaeological origin of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic eras, as well as historical finds raised from Etruscan and Gallic tombs. A considerable number of archaeological finds were provided to the museum by the University of Bologna and the artist P. Palagi.

Archaeological Museum of Bologna was founded in the 19th century

The household items of the ancient Romans, Egyptians, Greeks are collected here, as well as there are extensive collections of ancient awards and banknotes. The entrance to the museum is paid, the cost is 5 euros. You can view local collections every Friday from 9 am to 2:30 pm at the address: Via Archiginassio, 2.

The largest of them is the tower, once belonging to the Asinelli family and named after the eminent family. The building was built in opposition to the Garisendi family, who were at enmity with the owners of the tower and built a similar high-rise directly opposite. It rises above the city at a solid height, it was created in about 1120.

The high-rise tower of Asinelli offers an excellent view of the outskirts of the city of Bologna, so the building was used as an observation tower.

Later, in the 15th century, a fortress building was added to the high-rise building, where trade flourishes today. A characteristic feature of the Tower is not only a height of about 100 meters and a staircase consisting of almost five hundred steps, but also an inclined arrangement.

Bologna's famous leaning towers

Being one of the "highlights" of the city of Bologna, the falling towers of Asinelli and Garisendi seem to "look" at each other, tilting down. You can visit the high-rise building of the Asinelli clan every day, paying 3 euros, from 9 am to 6 pm in summer, in winter the visiting time ends an hour earlier. And the entrance to the Garisendi Tower for tourists, alas, is closed.

Bologna palaces

Bologna is famous for its palaces:


Flea markets

Bologna is famous not only for a huge number of cultural historical sites, but also for a fairly developed trade in the so-called "flea markets". What can you bring with you as a keepsake from Bologna?

Visit local retail outlets and be sure to choose a memorable thing for yourself:

    • Flea market Mercato Antiques di Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, famous for the antiques trade. It sells antique frames for mirrors and photographs, dolls, bags, lamps. The market is open from 9 to 18 hours in winter and until 19 in summer, every 2nd weekend. It is located on the square of the same name;
    • Mercado di Collezionizmo market, also offers buyers antiques, but these are more prints: magazines, newspapers, manuscripts. Open from 9 am to 6 pm on Thursdays. Located in Piazza Villa Agosto;

At the flea market in Bologna, you can buy antiques as a keepsake

  • flea market mercato del vintage, they sell here antique hats, accessories, jewelry, sunglasses every Tuesday from 9 to 16 hours;
  • Market La Piazzola. Both clothes and various household items, paintings, figurines are sold here. Trading is conducted on Fridays and Saturdays throughout the day. Ares: Piazza Villa Agosto.

And this is far from an exhaustive list. known to the world attractions, cultural, religious, architectural monuments and colorful retail outlets, which can be useful for the mind, soul and heart to visit the tourist of Bologna!

If you are planning an Italian trip, be sure to visit this city with its rich cultural, religious, and simply colorful life.

The University of Bologna is one of the oldest universities in the world and the second largest in Italy. It was the first university to be founded in the Western world (founded in 1088 AD). The University of Bologna received the Charter (the right to found a higher educational institution) from Frederic I Barbarossa in 1158. But in the 19th century, a group of historians led by Giosu Carducci, having studied and compared historical documents, concluded that the University of Bologna was founded in 1088. About 100,000 students study at the University in 23 faculties. This university has regional centers in Ravenna, Forlì, Tsesena, Reggio nel Emilia, Imola, Rimini, and one branch in Buenos Aires.

The history of the University of Bologna is part of the history of thinkers and scholars of the Renaissance and Modern Times. Mentions of the university are often found in notes and reviews of European culture at the time. The institution, which we are now accustomed to calling the University, began to take shape in Bologna at the end of the 11th century. The first teachers in Bologna were Pepone and Irnerius. In 1158, at the urging of four doctors, Frederick I Barbarossa proclaimed the existing University, where education could be carried out independently of political power. In medieval Europe, political power strongly influenced education.

In 1364, the Faculty of Theology was founded at the university. Among famous people who were educated here can be distinguished Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Secco d'Ascoli, Guido Giniselli, Chino da Pistoia, Pe Enzo, Salimbene da Parma and Coluccio Salutati.

In the 16th century in Bologna, Gaspare Taglicozzi finished his studies in plastic surgery. The 17th century is called the "golden era" of the University. First of all, due to the development of medicine, students began to use the microscope to conduct experiments and research. At this time, the University was popular throughout Europe. Among famous scientists and students, it is worth highlighting Rico Della Mirandola and Leon Battista Alberti, Nicolaus Copernicus. With the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, technological research began at the University. After the Italian state was united, the University began a period of prosperity.

The University of Bologna maintained its central role in global culture until World War II. Then the influence of the university diminished, others took the leading positions. In this regard, it was decided to create branches in other cities, which had a beneficial effect on the university itself.

This may be useful, designstudy.ru is a modern design school. Offers courses for both adults and children. All professions are in demand - this is landscape design, AutoCAD courses for an interior designer, fashion design and others. The training is conducted by experienced teachers who have long-proven themselves.

Università di Bologna

University of Bologna- the oldest continuously existing university in Europe. Located in the Italian city of Bologna. In the Arab world, the rival of Bologna is Al-Qaraouin University, the oldest continuously existing university in the world, but unlike European ones, Arab religious schools did not issue diplomas on behalf of the institution itself. It is a member of the European university associations Utrecht Network, Coimbra Group and Europaeum. The University of Bologna laid the foundation for European education.

Collegiate YouTube

  • 1 / 5

    In Bologna, as in other large centers of Italy, from ancient times they studied Roman law and put it into practice. The exact date of the founding of the university is unknown, but there is no doubt that there was a school of "liberal arts" in Bologna, which was especially famous in the 11th century, where students studied Roman law in the form of additional classes to the course of rhetoric.

    The beginning of a deep study of law was laid by Irnerius at the end of the 11th century. This Irnerius (sometimes called Vernerius, Varnerius, Garnerius) was a teacher at a liberal arts school; Having studied himself, without the help of a teacher, Justinian law, he acquired a reputation as a legist. According to Odfroy, a 13th century Bologna jurist whose writings contain historical information about the professors who preceded him, Irnerius opened a special law school at the request of Countess Matilda, the former ruler of Tuscany and part of Lombardy. It is quite plausible that the Countess, being a supporter of the Pope, was against inviting legists from Ravenna, who were distinguished by their traditional hostility to the papal throne, to her courts.

    Irnerius opened his public lectures in 1088, which is considered the year of the founding of his institute, and held a chair there until his death (between 1137).

    Coming of fame

    Irnerius had many students, of whom the most famous were four doctors of law: Bulgar Martin, Gosia, Gug and Jacques de la Porte Revennante. At the beginning of the 12th century, the law school in Bologna was already more popular than the Ravenna one. However, even in the middle of this century, the liberal arts school enjoyed greater fame outside of Italy. But by the end of the 12th century, Bologna law professors gained a noticeable superiority over other scholars of Bologna and acquired European fame. This was due, firstly, to the scientific advantages of the teaching method and, secondly, to the patronage of the German emperor Frederick I, who was also king of Lombardy and was interested in supporting the authority of Roman law, which could be relied on in cases of harassment of the crown. After the Diet in Roncalla in 1158, which was attended by Bolognese professors and where mutual legal relations between the emperor and Italian cities were settled, Frederick made a commitment to provide all students studying Roman law in Bologna with the following benefits: first, travel freely in all countries under the auspices of his authority (which helped to avoid the troubles usually experienced by foreigners), and secondly, only professors or bishops are subject to court in the city.

    Popularity with foreign students, especially northerners, added the wonderful climate of the city, and its development. Not only young men came to study, but already quite adults, family people. Among them are such as Copernicus, Ulrich von Hutten, Oloander. Crowned persons also sent their children to Bologna to study law and fine arts. The peculiarities of the university, surprising for that time, were the impossibility to enter due only to its position (knowledge was required equally from the son of an artisan and from the son of the king), as well as the fact that women were allowed into its depths, both as students and as teachers.

    The students who flocked from all over Europe did not hesitate to form in their midst real corporations modeled on the various craft and art workshops of that time. The collection of all student corporations under a common statute constituted by the end of the 12th century the University of Bologna.

    Features of the University of Bologna

    This university, which is, along with the Parisian, founded in the same era (1200), the oldest in Europe, from the day of its formation had two features - features arising from the very conditions under which it was formed. First, it was not an association of professors (universitas magistrorum), whose authority was exclusively to obey the students attending their lectures, but an association of students (universitas scholarium), which itself chose the leaders to whom the professors were subordinate. Bologna students were divided into two main parts, ultramontans and citramontans, of which each year elected a rector and a council from different nationalities, which together with him headed the administration and university jurisdiction. Professors (doctores legentes) were chosen by students for a specific time, received a conditional fee and pledged not to teach anywhere except Bologna. Being under the statute, therefore, depending on the university and being only free in the leadership of the students' studies, they could acquire authority and influence on the students solely by their personal qualities and pedagogical talents.

    The second feature of the University of Bologna was essentially that it was legal (universitas legum), as opposed to Paris, which was initially devoted solely to theology. The study of Roman law, which laid the foundation for the university itself, and canon law, which was introduced into the university curriculum from the 12th century, remained the main, if not exclusive, subjects of university teaching. Medicine and the liberal arts were indeed taught there during the thirteenth century by famous professors; but their listeners were nevertheless considered to belong to law university, and only in the XIV century. along with them, two other universities were formed: 1) medicine and philosophy and 2) theology. A remarkable consequence of the purely legal nature of the University of Bologna was that it was not subject, like that of Paris, to the supreme government of the popes, since there was no need for ecclesiastical permission for the teaching of Roman law, which was required for theology. However, starting from the XIII century. The popes who supported the university in its disputes with the city administrations and approved its statutes in 1253, in turn, had a certain moral authority over the university and ensured that the Bologna archdeacon, on their behalf, was the controller at the exams and at the issuance of diplomas, in order to make sure that their correctness.

    Flourishing

    The most brilliant period of the Bologna school of law was the period between the beginning of the 12th century and the second half of the 13th century, covering the lectures of Irnerius and the teaching of glossatorship by Accursius. During this period, their new teaching method found the widest and most fruitful application both in oral presentation and in the works of glossators. During this long period, the most famous of the glossators, after the four doctors mentioned above, were: Placentin, who worked mainly on the code of Justinian and founded the school of law in Montpellier, where he died in 1192; Burgundio, one of the few glossators who knew the Greek language, and a translator of the Greek texts of the pandects; Roger, Jean Bassien, Pillius, Azo - whose works were so respected that there was even a saying: “Chi non ha Azo, non vado a palazzo”; Gugolen, who continued the work of Azo Jacques Balduini; Rofroy and finally Accursius (1182-1258), the most famous of the glossators, famous mainly for his enormous compilation in which he summarized the work of his predecessors.

    Accursius passed on his love of jurisprudence to his children, and his daughter, Dota d'Accorso, awarded by the university with a doctorate in law and admitted to public teaching, was the first woman mentioned in the annals of the university. She was followed by other women lawyers: Bitgizia, Gozzatsini, Novella d'Andrea and others. Simultaneously with Roman law, the University of Bologna successfully taught canon law by professors who in their lectures and writings directly followed Irnerius' method. Since the second half of the 12th century, the names of professors of canon law (doctores decretorum) are found in the acts relating to the University of Bologna. Around 1148, Gratian lived in Bologna, a monk, author of famous decrees. After him, his disciples Pokapalia, Rufin, Roland Bandinelli (who later became Pope under the name of Alexander III), Guguccio, and in the XIII century. - Richard English, Damas, Tancred, famous for his "Ordo judiciarius", Bernard of Parma, Raymond of Peñafort - became the main representatives of the university teaching of canon law in Bologna. For a time the professors of Roman law (legum doctores) and the canonists (decretistae) formed two separate classes; but little by little the canonists began to regard Roman law as component part their subject, and vice versa, novelists had to make references in their works to church canons; the same scholars were often professors of both law (doctores utriusque juris) and were engaged in the teaching of both of these branches of law, closely related to each other.

    During the period of its highest prosperity at the University of Bologna, the schools of law, along with jurisprudence, began to flourish other sciences: philosophy, Latin and Greek literature, and then medicine. Of the professors-philosophers, one can name Alberigo, who read in the XII century, the Florentine Lot, who taught simultaneously with philosophy and physics, the monk Moneto. Among the philologists of the University of Bologna were Gaufrido di Vinisauf, an Englishman by birth who taught and wrote in poetry and prose, Boncompagno, an excellent connoisseur of the Latin language. The study of the Greek language, which marked the beginning of the era of the humanists, took root here earlier than in other Italian universities, and since the 15th century it has firmly established itself in Bologna, which can be proud of the fact that Erasmus of Rotterdam lived among its philosophers. In Bologna, medicine also made a significant step forward thanks to the method of teaching the anatomy of the human body and animals on corpses, pioneered by Lucine di Luzzi. In the field of medicine, and then the natural sciences, women professors at the University of Bologna were especially distinguished. Among them are known: the names of Dorothea Bucca (XIV-XV centuries), who after the death of her father Giovanni Bucca, took the chair of practical medicine and moral philosophy, and the famous Bolognese lectrices of the 18th century who are closer to our time - Laura Bassi, who occupied the chair of experimental physics and philosophy, the pride of Bolognese women, who, by subscription, erected a monument in honor of their illustrious compatriot that adorns the stairs leading to the museum and university library, Gaetana Agnesi, who taught analytical geometry, Anna Morandi, after Manzolini's husband, known for her works on anatomy, Maria dalla Donne , who won the respect of Napoleon I.

    Fall in popularity

    The spiritual and moral authority enjoyed by the professors of the Bologna school was reflected not only in the success that their lectures and writings had, but also in the high position that they occupied both in Bologna itself and abroad. They were exempted from taxes and military service and, although they were not born in Bologna, received all the rights of citizens of this city. They were given the title dominus as opposed to the name magister worn by professors of the liberal arts school, and they were listed as knights. Many of them took an active part in public affairs as judges, rulers of the city or ambassadors, such as Azo, Gugolin and Accursius in Bologna, Burgundio in Pisa, Baldina in Genoa, Rofroy in Benevengue. But often Bologna forgot that it owed its splendor to the university, and entered with it during the 12th and 13th centuries. into violent disputes that often threatened to destroy the rights and privileges of the university and interrupted classes in it. The struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines, which divided Italy into two warring parts, was fought with particular force in Bologna, and the university could not remain indifferent to it. Despite, however, these disputes and party strife, the Bologna school flourished for a long time and in the middle of the 13th century. reached the highest point of prosperity. From that time on, the direction in the former system of glossators began to change little by little. Instead of taking exclusively texts from the primary sources of Roman law as the subject of their interpretations, the current professors began to interpret the glosses of their predecessors: in school, as in the courts, glossa magistralis Accursia took the place of Corpus juris.

    Moreover, various circumstances influenced the change for the worse in the high position enjoyed by the Bolognese professors. Taking part in public affairs, they involuntarily intervened in party feuds and, thanks to this, lost a significant share of their moral charm. Then by the end of the XIII century. the city founded several departments for public lectures and appointed the professors who occupied these departments a certain fee in exchange for the fees paid by the students themselves, and little by little the majority of the professors were paid by the city; they thus fell under the authority of the city municipality, which claimed to regulate professorship, regardless of the personal abilities of teachers and the interests of science. And in the next century, another new measure dealt a fatal blow to the Bologna school: a political party, which was increasingly seizing power in the city, found a desire to grant the right to teach only to the citizens of Bologna and, moreover, only to members of well-known names, very few in number. The University of Bologna, thus, gradually lost its superiority in the study of Roman law, since the most famous legists of that time went to teach science in Pisa, Peruza, Padua and Pavia, who challenged each other for the palm.

    The fall of the Bologna school caused during the XIV century. the birth of the school of commentators - in the person of Bartol, which dominated during the XIV and XV centuries. But in the XVI century. the school of history took the work of the glossators into its own hands, expanding and supplementing it with the help of all the means that history and philology brought to it, renewed by the works of the humanists of the Renaissance.

    University influence

    During its existence, the Bologna school exerted a tremendous influence not only on Italy, but also on the whole of Western Europe. Thanks to the reputation of its professors, Bologna was regarded as the center of Roman law: by all accounts, it was only here that a deep knowledge of Roman law and ecclesiastical rules could be found. That is why young people from all over Europe aspired here to hear the science of law from the mouths of the professors themselves; upon their return to their homeland, former students of the University of Bologna promoted the method and doctrine of the glossators. In France, Pierre de Blois, Jacques de Revigny, Guillaume Durand; in England - Vacarius, Richard English, Francis Accursius; in Spain, Pont de Larida; in Italy, a large group of legists - spread through their lectures and writings the science that they themselves received in Bologna. Moreover, in these countries, most of the law faculties were founded on the model of the Bologna school by its professors: in Italy - Padua (1222), Vicenza (1203), etc .; in Aragon - Perpignan (1343); in France - the university in Montpellier, founded by Placentin at the end of the 12th century.

    Since the end of the 12th century, thanks to the works of Bologna glossators and their disciples, the reception of Roman law has been expanding more and more in the West, which, according to the doctrine of the then scientists, should be called universal law, that is, the ratio scripta, which should serve the general legislation of all Christian peoples. At the same time, the study of canon law developed throughout Europe, the foundation of which was laid by the Bologna school. If, as a matter of fact, it cannot be said that the Bologna school brought about again the study of Roman law in the 12th century, which, in essence, did not stop in previous centuries, nevertheless it can be argued that, thanks to its method and doctrine, it largely updated the science of law and had a tremendous influence on legislation, institutions and on the very ideas of European society, which was felt throughout the Middle Ages until very recent times. That is why the international character of the festival, to which the entire European scientific world responded, could so clearly affect the celebration of Bologna's 800th anniversary (1088-1888) of her university. Its current position, the beginning of which can be attributed to 1859, when it again acquired a secular character, freed from the strong influence of the pope, very little resembles the old university. At the end of the 19th century, it housed 4 faculties and a number of institutes, such as an engineering school, a pedagogical seminary, a school of political science, independent of Faculty of Law... The rector is appointed from among the professors, who in 1888 numbered up to 200. Among them were the famous Italian poet Carducci, who occupied the department of Italian literature and read in parallel to this course the comparative history of Romanesque literatures, and the women lecturers - Giuseppina Cattani and Malvina Ogonovskaya, professors Slavic dialects.

    The rich library of the university contains more than 200 thousand volumes.



    Recommended to read