Modern typology of pedagogical tests. High, since the main purpose of testing is to differentiate test takers by level of training Psychological test court brief content
Berry J.W. Human ecology and cognitive style. – N.Y., 1976.
Bruner J.S. Acts of Meaning. – L., 1990.
Cronbach L.J., Drenth P.J.D.(Eds) Mental Tests and Cultural Adaptation. – N.Y., 1972. Handbook of human intelligence / Ed. By R.J. Sternberg. – Cambridge, 1982.
Segall M.H., Campbell D.T. The influence of culture on visual perception. – Chicago, 1966.
Serpell R. Culture’s influence on behavior. – L., 1976.
Studies in individual differences / Ed.J. Jenkins, D. Patterson. – N.Y., 1961.
Super C.M., Harkness S. The developmental niche: a conceptualization at the interface of child and culture / Pierce R.A., Black M.A. (eds). Lifespan development: a diversity reader. – Kendall, 1993. – P. 61–77.
Vernon Ph.E. Intelligence and cultural environment. – L., 1969.
Wober M. Distinguishing, centricultural from cross-cultural tests and research / Percept. And motor skills. – 1969. – V. 28. P. 201–233.
Chapter 21: Criteria-Based Testing
In the last 3-4 decades, a new movement has emerged and spread in psychological diagnostics - Criterion-Based Testing(KORT), which put forward a new and completely adequate way to evaluate the materials obtained during testing. Criterion-based testing involves a fairly deep restructuring of the entire concept of psychological diagnostics, a new understanding of the entire system of studying individual differences. Currently, we can talk about two concepts of CORT - American, the essence of which will be discussed further, and Russian, domestic, the main provisions and practice of which will also be disclosed.
§1. Scientific basis of criterion-referenced testing
The history of the development and application of criterion-oriented testing in education indicates the deepening of the concept of “criterion” and its psychologization. In the development of this type of testing, a transition is planned from CORTs, addressed to formal-quantitative aspects of mastering the volume of knowledge and skills, to methods directed to the reference structures of educational activity, to objective indicators of the level of mental development, which correlate with the key requirements of the school educational program.
The first who pointed out the independent essence of the non-traditional form of testing and separated it from testing focused on the statistical norm was R. Glaser. He also introduced the term “criterion-oriented measurement” a little earlier.
A distinctive feature of CORT is the assessment of test performance in terms of its compliance with the criterion.
COURT measures what an individual knows or can do compared to what he must know or be able to do in order to successfully solve a problem. Aspects of completing educational tasks, expressed in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills, and mental actions, are the criterion on which the test is focused.
A criterion-oriented approach to diagnostics not only provides the opportunity for timely monitoring of each student’s progress in a particular educational material, but also opens the way to improving content and structural components educational activities of students.
Let's consider the described G. Wells two variants of marksmanship training, each associated with a traditional, statistical norm-oriented or criterion-referenced approach to testing. In one case (using the statistical norm approach), the shooter is given a brief explanation and it is emphasized that his results will not be compared with his own, but with the results of other shooters. After completing the task, the result is reported, as well as the place occupied by the student. In another case (the option of using an approach that involves focusing on a specific area of subject content - “domain” in the meaning of “criterion”), the arrow is given detailed instructions, the results obtained are compared with his own previously obtained results, the arrow is pointed to possible way overcome mistakes and offer to continue training in order to improve it. G. Wells notes that it is not difficult to imagine something similar when studying mathematics, literature, music and other academic subjects.
Today, most testologists recognize that there are significant differences between criterion-oriented and norm-oriented approaches. The purposes for which tests are prepared, the specificity of the information they provide when assessing the results of completing educational tasks, methods of construction and processing - all this serves as the basis for the difference between these two types of tests. From the very beginning, KORT is designed with an eye to a specific educational task; relations of content correspondence between it and the task are planned in advance (relevance). In relation to CORT, the educational task is not an “external criterion” with which test indicators will subsequently be correlated, but the reality, goals, content, methods of fulfillment of which the test reveals.
Let's say that students in class V are given the task of doing a project on trees and writing a report that contains drawings of local trees and their leaves, information about trees in terms of their contribution to ecology and quality of life, and recommendations on how to help protect trees. For such a task, the test writer defines the criteria for the execution process and the final product. Accordingly, the tree project will be assessed according to the following criteria:
· the report is made carefully;
· drawn and labeled at least three different types trees;
· each type of tree is described;
· the value of trees is described;
· methods for protecting trees are described.
A similar reference model of task performance can be used to evaluate each student's report. To use criteria-based scoring reliably, five model responses must be provided, one for each score out of the existing five.
The most essential condition when constructing a CORT will be the development of a task that adequately reflects the completion of the learning task. Whether they are difficult or easy, whether they contribute to the normal distribution of results or not - this does not determine the quality of the task in such a test. If it is confirmed that the majority of those who have passed a certain stage of training can cope with the test task, and the majority of those who have not been trained cannot cope with it, then this may serve as a necessary basis for including this task in the CORT. Necessary, but not sufficient. The researcher must also ensure that subjects who successfully complete the tasks actually applied the skills inherent in the criteria, and did not simply demonstrate their ability to remember the required terms or mechanically reproduce the required algorithms of actions. Therefore, item analysis in such a test should focus on thorough check composition of task performance, and not just on its statistical properties. Contrasting CORT with a test oriented towards a statistical norm does not exclude the possibility that in the practice of applying the former, a standardization procedure can be used. The standards for its implementation are correlated with educational standards - a set of subject knowledge and skills that must be acquired at a certain stage of training.
§2. Concepts of criterion in CORT
It became widespread in the early 70s, XX century. in the USA and other countries, the practice of developing CORT was based on the concept of the criterion as a reference set of subject knowledge and skills. Within the framework of this concept, criteria such as execution level And skill level.
Interpretation of the criterion as execution level was integrally connected with those ideas of educational psychology, according to which the educational process is understood as the sequential development of each element of educational behavior. The latter are recorded as a “repertoire” of observable external actions that are amenable to unambiguous measurement and appropriate control. At the same time, the goals of the educational process are subject to mandatory “translation” into types of actions open to observation and control. This is given particular importance when developing test tasks. It is recommended, in particular, to formulate educational goals in terms that would directly indicate the actions necessary to achieve them. It was no coincidence that the developers of criterion-referenced tests in the USA (V. J. Popham, R. Svezy, N. Gronlund, etc.) emphasized the need to operationalize the learning goal. R. Svezi notes that the educational goal must clearly and unambiguously indicate the actions that allow it to be achieved. Only in this case is the achievement of this goal subject to measurement in KORT. With this approach, it is considered that the terms “understand”, “evaluate”, “show awareness”, “take into account”, “implement”, etc. although they are associated with specific educational goals, they do not directly indicate the nature of the actions that need to be performed to achieve them. From this point of view, the terms “write”, “label”, “calculate”, “underline” are more relevant to a specific goal, and also clearly define the nature of the necessary actions.
Achievement of a learning goal is usually recorded percentage correct level completing KORT tasks. It has been empirically established that the level of test completion corresponding to the required mastery should be on the order of 80–100%. As practice has shown, fixing this level reflects stable positive results in mastering the material; the majority of students retain interest in the subject. Reducing the criterion level to 75% results in a deterioration in educational results.
COURTS, designed based on performance level, are widely used in programmed instruction. It should be noted that the first such tests appeared in connection with the introduction of teaching machines into the educational process and the use of individual curricula, and the inadequacy of the statistical norm in establishing the required level of fulfillment was revealed especially clearly here. The need to establish what of the given volume of the program has been mastered by the student and to what extent he has advanced in mastering the educational material compared to what he knew before came to the fore. If the test results did not meet the criterion - a percentage correct result, the student was recommended to return to those fragments of the educational material that required additional elaboration.
Researchers and teachers, using individual programs in the educational process and using the criteria for their mastery, could not help but pay attention to the fact that some students do not reach the given level because they do not have the necessary set of skills. It was suggested that skills and their component operations, without receiving sufficient elaboration in the educational process, are either not formed or are fixed and integrated into “defective” systems. In the theory and practice of CORTs, an understanding of the criterion arises as level of skill, those. a reference set of all operational components that make up a specific skill. With such a characteristic, the teacher or researcher can compare what the student does with what he should be able to do.
The peculiarity of criterion-based tests aimed at establishing the level of mastery is that they not only reveal the volume of acquired material, but also indicate the student’s ability to actively use the acquired knowledge in mastering new, more complex material. As mentioned, performance-based tests can establish (and this is true to their essence) that a student is sufficiently prepared to move on to the next stage of learning. At the same time, it remains unclear whether the student’s knowledge and skills are organized into standard structures adapted for solving specific problems, as well as at what level of assimilation they are located. The level of mastery embodies the criteria requirements, which are primarily determined by the standards and patterns of mastery established in the theory and methodology of teaching. The latter are recorded in school educational programs as the composition of educational skills.
Let’s say that teaching practice required a test that would monitor the extent to which students’ reading comprehension was developed. This skill can be viewed in terms of its structural components. Here is an approximate list of them: asking questions to the read text, reformulating difficult passages, highlighting the main ideas, drawing up a plan for the read text. It will not be enough to name only these components. Each of them must be specified primarily in terms of its external manifestations, i.e. implementing their operations. For example, a component such as highlighting the main idea can be operationally represented as follows:
1) underline the sentence expressing main idea excerpt;
2) choose a title for the passage;
3) list the facts confirming the main idea, etc.
In such a CORT, each of the selected components should be examined by a separate subtest. The subtest will include tasks that present all operational forms of the corresponding component. Based on the results of the CORT prepared in this way, it will be possible to draw specific conclusions about which components (and in which operational forms) of reading comprehension students have or have not yet mastered. This will allow us to judge the causes of the difficulties and take appropriate corrective measures.
The results of a test using a criterion such as skill level can be reliably determined provided that the so-called task completion checklist. It indicates the features or characteristics of the execution process or final result that can be observed to confirm the quality of the test task solution.
For example, the sample practice test, Bisecting an Angle, defines the following steps:
· a compass is used;
· the end of the compass is placed at the vertex of the angle, an arc is drawn between the sides;
· the point of the compass is placed at each intersection of the arc and the side of the angle, equal arcs are drawn;
· a line is drawn from the top of the angle to the point of intersection of the arcs;
· when checking with a protractor, you can see that the two angles obtained are equal to each other.
In other words, a completion checklist is a list of predetermined actions that determine the success of a given task. By observing students perform such tasks, the researcher notes all the actions they perform in accordance with the checklist and uses them as the basis for determining the measure of compliance with the task process standard.
It is known that there is always a close connection between the development of diagnostic tests and the pedagogical theory and practice of teaching for which these tests are intended. All those features of the criterion concept in CORT that were outlined above are based on the behavioristic model of learning. The separation of educational knowledge and skills from mental development postulated by this model was reflected in criterion-based testing. In pedagogical practice, achievement CORTs are used to control and evaluate the assimilation of school curriculum material (see Chapter 8), while the identification of mental actions is carried out using tests of intelligence and abilities built on a traditional basis.
The development of CORT, which addresses the psychological conditions for completing educational tasks, is possible only in the context of a theory that considers learning and development inextricably linked. It has been repeatedly noted in the domestic psychological and pedagogical literature that mastering the structural and operational composition of an educational task does not exhaust the analysis of task performance. Mastering educational material presupposes an appropriate level of mental development, in particular the formation of mental actions appropriate to the material. CORTS, in which mental actions performed serve as diagnostic indicators, embody such a concept of criterion as logical and psychological preparedness of the student to complete tasks. Such criteria are intended to determine whether the student’s mental development meets the requirements imposed by the material in the educational programs. With this approach, the test results, when compared with the criterion, will provide information about whether the student’s thinking includes the mental actions necessary for mastering new sections of the program, and whether he can confidently use them when performing new types of tasks.
This criterion concept is implemented in the development and application of two types of CORTs.
1. Some use the following criterion: socio-psychological standard – a set of concepts and logical skills that determine the mental inventory of a modern schoolchild necessary at a certain educational stage. The definition of a socio-psychological standard in itself suggests that this criterion characterizes the logical and psychological preparedness of subjects to perform tasks in broad subject areas, such as mathematics, natural science, and social and humanities disciplines. On its basis, a series of mental development gests (SHTUR, ASTUR, TURP, etc.) have already been developed; the principles of construction and the practice of their application were discussed in previous chapters.
2. COURTS of another type serve as tools for diagnosing the logical and psychological readiness of subjects to perform subject-specific tasks from specific academic disciplines. Accordingly, mathematical, linguistic, and biological CORTs are being developed, in which the criterion is subject-logical standard for updating mental actions. What is subject to analysis in such CORTs is logical and psychological readiness to perform not any arbitrarily chosen educational task, but one that meets the following conditions:
· the material presented in the educational task must characterize an internally completed area of educational content in a specific academic subject;
This task must be key but in relation to other tasks in this section of the subject area; when performing it, new terms and concepts are included in the student’s thinking, on the basis of which logical connections are established with the past and conceptual knowledge to be assimilated;
· the educational task must be suitable for the most complete psychological decoding, i.e. can be presented in the form of a systematic and sequential list of mental actions;
· mental actions that mediate the implementation of educational tasks must be in the formative stage; at this stage they are open to logical-psychological analysis and subsequent correction.
Currently, the theoretical prerequisites for the psychological analysis of the educational task for CORT, which implements this type of criterion, have been determined. Unlike tests focused on performance level or mastery level, the CORTs in question are tests with psychological content.
§3. Development of CORT with psychological content
The psychological content of CORT methods is determined by the following:
· their special focus – the test’s focus on monitoring mental development and assessing its level. CORT methods examine mental actions that mediate students' performance of educational tasks. There are, as a rule, no indications of what these actions are in the methodological literature, and if there are, they are given the most general character - these are references to the need for analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization without defining meaningful indicators of their implementation on the material with specific subject specificity. These actions must be identified both through logical and psychological analysis of the task, and during specially organized observations of students when they perform tasks that allow them to outline what actions need to be performed;
· the use of methodological techniques with the help of which the content of test tasks is selected, as well as the analysis of methods of orientation in the subject material, each of which is determined by the “subjective logic” of students mastering the required mental actions.
All this is taken into account during the development of the test specification. By describing the criterion on which a given test is focused, the specification at the same time defines the boundaries of the content area to which the test belongs.
In order to show how the specification is carried out, let us turn to the existing experience in developing CORT methods. The test, which will be discussed further, was developed on the basis of mathematics (VI grade of secondary school) and is aimed at identifying mental actions that mediate the ability to compose equations according to the terms of word problems. The ability to write an equation is key to a number of mathematical knowledge and skills. In grades V–VI, this skill is just being formed, and its psychological content is also laid down here, i.e. mental actions that determine the functioning of the skill. At further stages, the role of this skill increases.
When preparing a test specification, you first need to reveal the criterion value of the content being studied. For this test it is as follows: the specifics of studying mathematics are closely related to the actualization of mental actions that mediate the formation of schoolchildren’s thinking techniques. These techniques act as a condition for researching and solving word problems. In this case, the specification notes that what is essential in solving word problems is the construction of a sequence of problem models, the final link in which is a mathematical model (equation). Modeling relationships between quantities is a constitutive characteristic mathematical thinking, and sign models and their transformations act as the meaningful basis of mental actions. Orientation towards a sign model, which is the result of a mental transformation of a textual mathematical problem, thus acts as a criterion for the formation of mental actions. This is what is included in this test. Drawing up an equation according to the conditions of word problems assumes that the student masters the following mental actions:
· carries out analysis task situation, i.e. identifies a condition that is essential for drawing up an equation according to the text of the problem (the basis for the equation);
· installs identity between iconic models of varying degrees of generalization and descriptive text;
· splits tasks into classes on essential basis – type of relationships between quantities;
· sees similarity in problems, based on the similar nature of modeling the dependence between quantities.
The identified set of mental actions forms the basis for constructing the CORT methodology. The maturity of each action is checked by a separate subtest. In the test in question, there are four such subtests (according to the number of designated actions). They are given the following names: “Identification of the essential”, “The fourth odd one”, “Find a similar one”, “Establishing identity”.
The test developer must be confident that the test will include material that is representative of the learning content being examined. For this purpose, a cataloging of text mathematical problems was carried out. It included information about the plots, features of the tasks, their substantive content (i.e., what quantities are presented in the problem, interrelated quantities or different meanings the same quantity), types of sign model of relations between quantities included in the problem statement. Next, the approximate share of each task was determined, i.e. the place given to a problem of this type in a school mathematics textbook. Thus, all the main types of problems presented in the curriculum were included in the subtest tasks. When developing the CORT methodology, the texts of the selected tasks were subjected to some changes related to inclusion in the conditions stimulus material. For example, for the tasks of the CORT methods, the stimulus material was such elements of the content and structure of the task that could encourage students to use their existing methods of orientation in the material - subjective “logics”. The same numerical data, similar vocabulary, etc. were entered into the task conditions. All these unimportant data, external to the actual mathematical content of the problems, performed the function of “noise” intended to “mask” the signals, i.e. relationships between quantities fixed by a sign model of a certain type.
Introducing stimulus material into tasks makes it possible to determine to what extent the degree of formation of a mental action corresponds to the established criterion. If a student has not yet mastered the subject logic of updating mental action, he will not be able to overcome inadequate methods of orientation in the educational material. All this will be clearly demonstrated by the CORT technique.
We present sample tasks of all four subtests of the considered CORT with an indication of the meaningful indicators of their implementation.
Subtest “Identification of the essential”. It includes tasks of the following type: establish which of the selected (A, B, C, D) conditions is essential in determining the nature of the equation that should be compiled for the given task.
The plant had to fulfill the order for the production of cars in 15 days (A), but already 2 days before the deadline (B) the plant not only fulfilled the plan, but also produced 6 more cars (B) above the plan, because daily produced 2 cars above the plan (D). How many cars was the plant supposed to produce according to plan?
Proper execution The task assumes that the student is guided by a condition indicating the relationship between quantities (condition B): “The volume of production produced in excess of the plan is 6 cars more than the planned volume.” This condition is “key” in identifying the nature of the equation, while conditions A, B, D, although they contain mathematical information, determine only the form of individual algebraic expressions, but not the equation as a whole.
Subtest "Fourth odd". It includes tasks of the following type: four tasks are given, three of one type, one of another, i.e. superfluous, relates to problems of a different type. It is required to determine which of the tasks (A, B, C, D) is redundant.
A. A team of tractor drivers planned to plow 60 hectares daily. However, the plowing plan was exceeded daily by 25%, and therefore the plowing was completed the day before the deadline. It is required to determine how many days the field was plowed.
B. The farmer planned to sow 25 hectares per day. But he managed to increase the daily sowing by 5 hectares, and therefore he finished the work for three days ahead of schedule. What is the area of the field that the farmer has sown?
B. An electric train covers the distance between two stations in 1.2 hours. Due to track repairs, the train reduced its speed by 20% and covered this distance in 1.5 hours. Find the initial speed of the train.
D. Two links collected 8840 centners of corn from their plots, with the first link receiving an average of 150 centners of grain per hectare, and the second – 108 centners each. The section of the second link was 35% larger than the section of the first link. Determine the area of the first link,
When completing a task, it is essential that the student compares and combines tasks based on the common type of relationships between quantities (the extra one in the series of tasks is task D). The commonality of the plot (agricultural work - tasks A, B, D), the similarity of individual details (the relationship between the values of quantities is given in the form of a percentage - tasks A, B, D) is not a sufficient basis for the conclusion that the tasks belong to the same the same kind.
Subtest “Find something similar.” It includes tasks of the following type. Find a problem similar to this: find three consecutive odd numbers whose sum is 81.
A. The cord was cut into three parts, with the first part being cut in half more than the second and the third separately. What is the length of each of the three parts if it is known that the second part is 81 cm shorter than the first?
B. The sum of two numbers is 81. If one of them is doubled, then the sum of the resulting numbers will be equal to 136. What is the value of each of the two numbers?
B. The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. The angles are proportional to the numbers 3,4 and 5. Find the angles of the triangle.
D. Find two numbers whose sum is 132 if 1/5 of one number is equal to 1/6 of the other.
Essential when updating the action of finding an analogy is the orientation towards the similarity of sign models of the problems under consideration (task B). Finding an analogy based on the similarity of numerical data (A), individual lexical units of the task situation conditions (B), similar syntactic organizations (D) indicates that the student does not master the mental action presented in the subtest.
Subtest “Establishing identity”. It includes tasks of the following type: which of the compiled problems corresponds to an equation of the form 6x–x=25?
A. Vitya thought of two numbers. Their quotient is 6, and the difference is 25. What numbers did Vitya have in mind?
B. Mom baked 25 pies with raspberries and apples. There were 6 times more pies with raspberries. How many apple pies were there?
B. There are 6 times more people in one room than in the second. After 25 people moved from the first room to the second, there were an equal number of people in both rooms. How many people were in each room initially?
D. After 1/6 of all available coal was used up in the first week, 25 tons of coal remained in the warehouse. How much coal was in the warehouse?
180. Test items that allow one to judge the minimum acceptable competence of school graduates are ...
+: achievement tests
-: intelligence tests
-: experimental techniques
-: career guidance tests
181. A criterion-based test belongs to the group of tests...
+: achievements
-: intelligence
-: personalities
-: creativity
182. The advantages of achievement tests are... and...
+: ensuring the objectivity of the test
+: objectivity of interpretation of measurement results
-: limited time for completing test tasks
-: taking into account the condition of all subjects during testing
-: no gradation of “true-false” answer
183.The test of natural scientific thinking, consisting of two subtests in the school disciplines of physics, chemistry and biology, was developed:
+: G.A.Berulava
-: D.B. Epiphany
-: E.L. Thorndike
-: G. Ebbinghaus
-: K.M. Gurevich.
184. Compiling an achievement test involves including tasks ..., ...
+: unambiguously formulated
+: answers to which eliminate the possibility of guessing
-: the answers to which are correct
-: answer options should be as complete as possible
185. Professional achievement tests are used for the purpose of ..., ...
+: selection of personnel for the most responsible positions
+: determining the specialist’s qualification level
-: clarification of the level of intellectual development of personnel
-: assessments of staff opportunities for career advancement
-: measures of learning ability
186. Achievement tests used at universities are used for the purpose of:
+: performance evaluations vocational training
-: comparison of achievements before and after the student’s training
+: identifying knowledge gaps among trainees
-: determining the personal qualities of a future specialist
-: identifying students’ skills in operating scientific concepts
187. Tests ### are used to assess the current or final results of mastering any disciplines or sections
+: achievements
188. Tests aimed at assessing the mastery of curriculum elements, specific topics, and the level of mastery of skills are...
+: achievement tests in specific subjects
-: broadly focused achievement tests
-: tests of professional achievements
-: intellectual tests.
189. Criterion testing at intermediate stages of education pursues the goal of ... students
+: correction of missing structures of mental activity
-: prevention of the development of mental operations
-: diagnostics of the level of intellectual development
-: assessment of the level of development of knowledge and skills
190. The results of ... the test contain information about what and how the student learned from the given educational material
+: criterion-oriented
-: intellectual
-: personal
-: projective
191. Construction of a criterion-referenced test requires... and...
+: analysis of program material
+: highlighting the knowledge and skills required in the subject
-: selection of tasks taking into account the average IQ level of students
-: taking into account individual strategies for completing a task
-: compiling tasks according to the principle “from simple to complex”
192. The empirical type of thinking in the criterion-oriented test by G.A. Berulava is focused on ...
+: specific conditions of the task
-: an attempt at a scientific analysis of the solution to the problem
-: identifying what is special in a given situation
-: identifying the universal relationship between objects
193. ...type of thinking involves the use of certain natural science laws when solving a problem, but the answer is incorrect
+: empirical-scientific
-: empirical-everyday
-: differential-synthetic
-: integrative
194. The tasks in the test of natural scientific thinking by G.A. Berulava are ... and ... in nature.
+: high quality
+: boolean
-: quantitative
-: figurative
-: empirical
195. What distinguishes achievement tests from aptitude tests is that they examine...
+: success in mastering specific knowledge
+: past experience, without pretending to predict the choice of profession
-: an indicator of the level of intellectual development of an individual
-: opportunities for students to acquire certain knowledge
196. Criterion-based tests were proposed ... in 1963
+: R.Glaser
-: R. Cattell
-: G. Eysenkom
-: G.A.Berulavoy
197. Tests that allow assessing the degree of an individual’s proficiency in specific knowledge and skills in a certain form activities are...
+: achievement tests
-: projective tests
-: intelligence tests
-: personality tests
198. Forms of tests of professional achievements are ...
+: written, oral and action tests
-: criterial and intellectual
-: objective and subjective
-: general, local and current
199. Sequence of events associated with the development of achievement tests:
1: replacing oral quizzes with written exams in Boston
2: T. L. Kelly publishes a battery of tests on school subjects
3: creation of an educational testing service in America
4: testing in the USA to select highly gifted children
200. Achievement tests, unlike other tests, allow you to determine:
+: success in mastering specific educational material
+: effectiveness of the applied student training program
-: forecast of choice for an individual of a certain profession
-: level of intellectual development of students
-: qualification level of the teaching teacher.
201. Compliance of the form of tests of professional achievements and their characteristics:
L1: action tests
R1: assignments for professional activities
L2: written tests
R2: questions aimed at testing specialized knowledge
L3: oral tests
R3: Interview questions
R4: knowledge, skills and abilities upon admission to educational institution
R5: degree of motivation of the applicant when entering a university
202. Writing achievement test items requires:
+: clear and unambiguous wording of tasks and answers
-: inclusion of minor terminology
-: tasks to identify the student’s abilities
-: questions to identify personal characteristics
203. The appearance of the first achievement test, presented in the form of a table to test spelling knowledge, is associated with the name ...
+: J.M. Rice
-: G. Munsterberg
-: J. Guildford
-: G.Ebbinghaus
204. The Unified State Examination involves the use of...
+: achievement tests
-: intelligence tests
-: professional tests
-: personality questionnaires
205. Developed in the USA, the National Readiness Test (MRT) is designed to diagnose subjects ... age
+: preschool
-: junior school
-: teenage
-: high school
2 Pedagogical test is a system of tasks of a specific form that allows you to objectively and functionally, regardless of the teacher, measure the level of educational achievements of students, the totality of their ideas, knowledge, abilities and skills in a particular area of content.
3 Classification of pedagogical tests According to the level of control: entrance, current, thematic tests, intermediate and final certification tests. By content: homogeneous and heterogeneous. According to the methodology for interpreting the results: normative-oriented and criterion-oriented. According to the form of presentation: blank, computer ordinary and computer adaptive.
4 Homogeneous test – based on the content of any one discipline. Heterogeneous test - based on the content of several disciplines, Multidisciplinary test - a set of homogeneous tests (subtests) in individual disciplines. Interdisciplinary test - each test task must include elements of the content of several disciplines. Performing such tasks requires the use of some generalized, integrative knowledge and skills. It is most suitable for final certification of the degree of compliance of students’ level of preparedness for professional activities with the requirements of the State Standards, but implementation is very difficult.
5 Normative-oriented pedagogical test - allows you to compare the educational achievements (levels of professional knowledge and skills) of individual test takers with each other. These tests are used to obtain reliably and normally distributed scores for comparison between test takers. A criterion-oriented pedagogical test is a system of tasks that allows you to measure the level of individual educational achievements relative to the full scope of knowledge, skills and abilities that must be acquired by students in a specific discipline.
6 Stages of developing a criterion-oriented test 1. Based on the State Standards for the relevant discipline, the scope of the test content and testing goals are determined. The plan (specification) of the test for intermediate control of knowledge must cover knowledge, skills and abilities in one or more didactic units, for final certification - in all didactic units of the discipline in accordance with the State Standards for the specialty. 2. For each specification item, several test tasks are developed. 3. The methodological commission of the department (experts) evaluates the compliance of tasks with the content area and testing goals. Internal trial testing is carried out by teachers of the department. A preliminary adjustment of the test is carried out. The testing time for students is determined: Tst = Tpr * 2.
7 4. Based on the experts’ comments, the assignments are adjusted and trial testing is carried out in the classroom. Students should not be told that this is a pilot test as this may result in poor quality results. 5. Based on the analysis of statistical parameters for each task and the test as a whole, the test is re-adjusted - unsuccessful tasks are removed, and new ones are created if necessary. 6. Selection of assessment standards using expert and empirical methods. Assessment of test reliability. Assessment of content and criterion validity. 7. Drawing up the final version of the test and its parallel forms. Replication of the test itself and related materials.
8 Initially, you need to answer the question - what is the test intended to measure, i.e. what is the content area and purpose of testing. When developing a plan, an approximate layout of the percentage content of sections is made and the required number of tasks for each section of the discipline (for each didactic unit) is determined based on its importance and the number of hours allocated for its study in the program. The specification fixes the structure, content of the test and the percentage of tasks in the test. It is also advisable to indicate in the specification the weight of each task recommended by the author, the recommended time for completing the test, the coverage of the requirements of the standards, and the recommended strategy for arranging tasks in the test.
9 Who will be tested, i.e. What sample of students will participate in testing? Who is really interested in receiving test results and what information should be provided to users? The assessment criterion can be set to 50% for assessing current performance in non-core disciplines and 85% for certification tests in special disciplines. The reliability of the test is assessed by the degree of consistency of the pass-fail decision during double testing. To do this, a “2x2” conjugation table of results is filled in and the phi correlation coefficient and kappa coefficient of consistency of test results are calculated.
10 Principles for selecting the content of test tasks for tests 1. The principle of congruence - correspondence of the content of the pedagogical test to the content academic discipline. The test items must be correct proportion cover all important aspects of the content area. 2. The principle of significance - reflects the need to include in tests only the most important, basic knowledge that expresses the essence, content, laws and patterns of the phenomena under consideration. 3. The principle of scientific reliability - all controversial points of view that are admissible in a scientific dispute should be excluded from test tasks. 4. The principle of compliance of the test content with the level of the current state of scientific knowledge - it is necessary to constantly improve the test by adding new test tasks to the bank. 5. The principle of consistency, complexity and balance of test content - selection of tasks that comprehensively reflect the main topics of the academic discipline. 6. The principle of increasing difficulty of test tasks - each educational element has a certain average measure of difficulty, which must be taken into account in the process of monitoring knowledge. 7. The principle of the relationship between content and head start - not every content of a task can be expressed in test form. Also, the content of the test must meet logical and semantic requirements and norms.
11 Tasks with a choice of answers (in a closed form) Test tasks Tasks with a repeated choice of elements of a set Tasks with a non-repeating choice of elements of a set Tasks with a repeated choice of elements of a set Tasks for establishing correspondence of an open form Tasks for establishing correspondence with answer options Tasks for establishing correspondence Tasks to establish the correct sequence in open form Tasks to establish the correct sequence in closed form (with ready-made sequence options) Tasks to establish the correct sequence Tasks with 3 or more answer options Tasks to compare values Tasks with the choice of several correct answers Tasks for logical choice from three statements Tasks with reference to one information block Tasks with underlining parts of a sentence Tasks with omissions of parts of a sentence Tasks on cause-and-effect relationships Tasks on “quasi-professional” situation Tasks with 2 answers Tasks for choosing the location of the mouse cursor on the monitor screen Tasks of an open form Tasks with a short answer Tasks with an extended answer
12 Requirements for multiple-choice tasks The text of the task must eliminate any ambiguity or unclear wording; The main part of the task is formulated very briefly, no more than one sentence of seven to eight words; The task is extremely simple syntactic construction; The main part of the task includes as many words as possible, leaving 2-3 key words for a given problem for the answer; All answers to one task should be approximately the same length, or in some tasks the correct answer may be shorter than others; All verbal associations that contribute to choosing the correct answer by guessing should be excluded from the text; The frequency of choosing the same place number for the correct answer in different tasks should be approximately the same; The main part of the task should be freed from any material irrelevant to the given problem; All repeated words must be excluded from the answers by entering them into the main text of the assignments;
13 Requirements for multiple-choice tasks It is not recommended to use the words “all”, “none”, “never”, “always”, “none of the above”, “all of the above” in answers, because in some cases they help to guess the correct answer; Answers that follow from one another are excluded from the list of incorrect ones; Assignments containing value judgments or student opinions on any issue are excluded from the test; All distractors should be equally likely to be attractive to subjects who do not know the correct answer; None of the distractors should be a partially correct answer, which, under certain additional conditions, turns into a correct answer. The main part of the task is formulated in the form of a statement, which turns into a true or false statement after substitution of answers; The answer to one task should not serve as a key to the correct answers to other test tasks, i.e. You should not use distractors from one task as answers to other test tasks; If the task contains, among others, alternative answers, you should not give an alternative answer immediately after the correct one, since the answerer’s attention usually focuses only on these two answers; All answers must be parallel in design and grammatically consistent with the main part of the test task.
14 Information Technology 1. A server is: a program; test; team; computer. 2. Viruses like " Trojan horse"characterized by the absence of disguise yes; no. Economic theory 3. Labor, capital, land, entrepreneurial ability - the basic classification of economic resources. Can money be classified as an economic resource? Yes, it is possible if it is used to purchase investment resources; it is possible if it is used to pay for services labor; all answers are correct; all answers are incorrect; it is possible if the money is placed in a bank and earns interest. Economic theory 4. The specificity of entrepreneurial talent as an economic resource, in contrast to labor, is that the entrepreneur is able to organize the production and release of goods and services, by connecting all the necessary factors of production; the entrepreneur makes the main decisions on production management and business management; the entrepreneur never risks his in cash; all answers are correct; Answers 1) and 2) are correct.
15 In task B, the answer options for the question are poorly formulated - the correct answer should be “disguised” among the incorrect ones. In task B, the correct answer is easy to distinguish by its length. Marketing A. The demand curve illustrates the following point: If less of a good is produced today than yesterday, then less of it can only be sold at a lower price; If more goods were produced today than yesterday, then its increased quantity can only be sold at a higher price; If more goods were produced today than yesterday, then its increased quantity can only be sold at a lower price; If the same amount of goods was produced today as yesterday, you can gradually raise the price for it. B. Your response to a competitor’s price reduction for a certain product: I will also reduce the price; I will immediately implement a set of measures, including adjustments to the pricing policy and taking into account the capabilities of the enterprise and real conditions; I will leave this market; I will stop producing this product.
16 The answer options to the question posed are poorly formulated. Answers must be a continuation of the phrase contained in the question. Marketing It is not typical for a partnership that... partners do not make individual decisions; each partner has unlimited liability for the debts of the firm; the possibility of raising additional capital by selling shares; partners are personally responsible for the affairs of the firm; impossibility of raising additional capital by selling shares. In the BCT (Boston Consulting Group) matrix, the product category - cash cows - is defined as: high sales growth rate; are at the end of their life cycle; more profit comes in than is required to maintain their market share; a product that has remained in the company’s product portfolio for a long time.
17 Information Technology How do I change the drive in the left panel? Shift+F1 Ctrl+F1 Alt +F2 Alt +F1 Economic theory The supply curve reflects the relationship between the value of production costs and the price of the product; population growth and supply; volume of production of a given product and its price; the magnitude of production costs and supply volume; volume of production of a given product and the amount of resources used In the first example, it is obvious that the answer options are not equally probable - 1) two identical combinations - Alt +F2 and Alt +F1, 2) F1 occurs 3 times, therefore the correct answer is Alt +F1. The possibility of guessing should be kept to a minimum. The exception is computational mathematical or physical problems, in which it is necessary to “see” the answer without calculation. The rule regarding the location of alternative answers is observed. There is a combination of correct and incorrect elements in the distractors. This technique allows you to increase the attractiveness of distractors Economic theory Sugar complements coffee, but replaces fructose. An increase in the price of sugar can lead, other things being equal, to... a reduction in the demand for coffee and fructose; a decrease in prices for coffee and fructose. there is no correct answer to a slight decrease in the demand for coffee and an increase in the demand for fructose, an increase in coffee prices and an increase in the demand for fructose
They differ from traditional tests in that in traditional tests the assessment is carried out by correlating individual results with group ones (orientation to the statistical norm), and in criterion-oriented tests the assessment is carried out by correlating individual results with a certain criterion. Such a criterion is the level of proficiency in skills, abilities, and knowledge.
CATs are used in education. The purpose of testing using CAT is to assess skill proficiency. The final score captures the degree of mastery of a skill and does not include individual differences, which is weak point CAT. Therefore, their use is possible for assessing basic skills.
A domestic example of CAT is the School Test of Mental Development - SHTUR (1).
Criteria-Based Tests– a type of tests designed to determine the level of individual achievements relative to some criterion based on a logical-functional analysis of the content of tasks. Specific knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful completion of a particular task are usually considered as a criterion (or objective standard). This is the main difference between criterion-oriented tests and traditional psychometric tests, in which assessment is carried out on the basis of correlating individual results with group ones (orientation to a statistical norm). The term "criteria-based tests" was proposed R. Glasser in 1963. Establishing the content and structural correspondence between test items and the real task is the most important stage in the development of criterion-oriented tests. These purposes are served by the so-called specification, which includes:
b) systematization of knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure the fulfillment of the criterion task;
c) samples of test items and a description of the strategy for their construction.
There are two types of criterion-referenced tests:
1) tests whose tasks are homogeneous, i.e., constructed on the same or similar content and logical basis. Typically, this kind of criterion-oriented tests are developed on the basis of educational programs and are used to monitor the formation of relevant knowledge, skills and abilities;
2) tests whose tasks are heterogeneous and differ markedly in logical structure. In this case, a stepwise test structure is common, in which each step is characterized by its own level of difficulty, determined by a logical-functional analysis of the content related to the criterion area of behavior. A. Anastasi (1982) believes that the emphasis of criterion-referenced tests on the meaningful meaning of the interpretation of test indicators can have a beneficial effect on testing in general. In particular, describing the results obtained using intelligence tests in terms of specific skills and abilities significantly enriches the indicators they record. For criterion-referenced tests, the usual methods for determining validity and reliability are in most cases unsuitable.
Based on the socio-psychological standard, the results obtained using well-known psychometric tests are analyzed.
Ticket No. 26 Achievement tests.
An achievement test is a group of psychodiagnostic techniques aimed at assessing the achieved level of development of skills and knowledge.
2 groups of achievement tests:
1. Tests of learning success (used in the education system)
2. Tests of professional achievements (tests for diagnosing special knowledge and work skills necessary to perform professional and labor actions).
An achievement test is the opposite of an aptitude test. Differences: There is a difference between these tests in the degree of uniformity of prior experience that is diagnosed. While an aptitude test reflects the influence of the cumulative variety of experiences students receive, an achievement test reflects the influence of a relatively standard course of learning something.
The purpose of using aptitude tests and achievement tests:
ability tests - to predict differences in the success of an activity
· achievement tests – provide a final assessment of knowledge and skills upon completion of training.
Neither aptitude tests nor achievement tests diagnose abilities, skills, or giftedness, but only the success of a previous achievement. There is an assessment of what a person has learned.
Classification of achievement tests.
Broadly oriented - to assess knowledge and skills, compliance with the main learning objectives (calculated over a long period of time). For example: achievement tests for understanding scientific principles.
Highly specialized - mastering individual principles, individual or academic subjects. For example: mastering a topic in mathematics - the prime numbers section - how this section was mastered.
Purposes of using achievement tests.
Instead of teacher evaluation. A number of advantages compared to teacher assessment: objectivity - you can find out how much the main topics have been mastered, identifying the main ones. You can build a profile of mastery of each topic.
Achievement tests are very compact. Achievement tests are group tests and are therefore convenient. The learning process itself can be assessed and improved.
How to design achievement tests?
1. The achievement test consists of tasks that reflect a specific area of the course content. First you need to plan the topic of content, identify important topics in the course of study. The teacher who taught the topics should participate in the construction of the achievement test. The psychodiagnostician must know the main topics.
2. Exclude secondary knowledge and unimportant details from the task. It is desirable that the completion of tasks depends to a small extent on the student’s mechanical memory, but rather depends on the student’s understanding and critical assessment.
3. Assignments should be representative of the learning objectives. There are learning goals, the success of mastering the material, which are difficult to assess (for example, mastering a topic about rights), then you need to write assignments in such a way as to reflect the mastery of the material.
4. The achievement test must fully cover the area of the academic subject that is to be studied. Assignments should be broadly representative of the area being studied.
5. Test tasks must be free from extraneous complicating elements, there must be no complicating elements, there must be no additional difficulties.
6. Each task is accompanied by answer options.
7. The task must be clearly, concisely and unambiguously formulated. So that no task is a hint for another test task (check after compilation).
Answers should be structured in such a way as to exclude the possibility of recalling answers (that is, do not give answer options that are not related to the topic or very easy ones so that the subject cannot guess, discarding the answer options as obviously unacceptable).
8. The fulfillment criterion is set. The psychologist develops a large number of tasks, not all of them will be included in the test. To begin with, all tasks are checked. The test will include those tasks that are solved by a 100% majority of people who have a good command of the material. The second test is for those who do not master the material - they must complete less than half. Assignments are compiled according to the maximum criterion. 90-100% - high level of training. The achievement test is not assessed against a static norm, but against the class. The individual result is compared.
Tests of professional achievements.
Vocational achievement tests are used to evaluate the effectiveness of professional training or vocational training. To select people for the most responsible positions - professional selection. Used to assess the skill level of employees when moving to another position. The goal is to assess the level of training in professional knowledge and skills.
3 forms of professional achievement tests:
1. action execution test
2. written
3. oral tests of professional achievements
1. Execution tests. Completion of a series of tasks that demonstrate mastery of basic skills or actions. Those mechanisms, equipment, tools are used that are used in work or modeling of individual elements of professional activity, the ability to reproduce individual operations.
2. Written achievement tests. They are used where it is necessary to find out how much special knowledge a person has. Assignments on forms. Performed in writing with a specific form of answers.
3. Oral tests of professional achievements. During the First World War, aptitude tests were used to select personnel. A series of questions that reveal specialized knowledge. Diagnostics in the form of an interview. Conducted individually. Convenient to use. No need to print. The subject must answer in the given form.
Vocational achievement tests are created just like achievement tests. A large number of tasks are created, obviously several times more. They check. Three groups of workers are tested:
1. highly qualified experts
2. beginners
3. representatives of related professions.
The task is included in the test if:
· the task was completed by the majority of experts (this is a sign of validity)
· the task was completed by a smaller percentage of beginners (approximately 60-70%)
· and, if an even smaller percentage of representatives of related professions completed the task.
Achievement tests have been developed for more than 250 types of professional activities. We practically do not have such tests.
Ticket No. 46 psychodiagnostics of professional activity.
Psychodiagnostics of professional activity allows you to study a person’s professional interests using indirect questions, based on the use of special psychological tests, which allows you to become more familiar with the specifics of a person’s professional orientation and makes it possible to identify the degree of its expression.
Diagnosis of professional suitability: a person’s professional suitability is defined as “a set of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics necessary and sufficient for him to achieve, in the presence of special knowledge, skills and abilities, socially acceptable labor efficiency...”. This concept also includes “the satisfaction experienced by a person in the process of work itself and when evaluating its results.”
Tasks of professional diagnostics: a) determination of the current level of professionalism; b) establishing the person’s compliance with the requirements of the profession and the profession’s compliance with the person’s requirements; c) identifying a person’s potential professional capabilities; d) assistance to a specific employee in using his real professional capabilities to effectively perform work.
Thus, diagnosing the professional activity of a specialist performs not only the diagnostic function itself, which includes determining the level of professionalism at the moment and establishing the degree of compliance of a given person with the objective requirements of a given profession. Ultimately, the result of diagnosing a specialist’s professional activity is to determine for him possible directions for further personal development and professional growth. Determining a person’s requirements for his profession, his potential opportunities for professional self-realization and real professional opportunities significantly helps a specialist optimize his professional activities.
Psychodiagnostics of candidates selected for law enforcement agencies
Psychodiagnostic examination candidates to serve in law enforcement agencies should be carried out using a specially selected battery of tests,
which provide the solution to the following problems: selection candidates, most
suited by their individual psychological qualities to work in
law enforcement agencies; identification and screening of persons who, in their own way,
intellectual abilities may be significantly affected
professional maladjustment and, accordingly, do not meet the requirements,
presented to law enforcement officials.
During a psychodiagnostic examination candidates from the nomination reserve
a psychological assessment of the degree of their suitability for work in
as leaders. In this case the same battery is used
tests, as in the selection of persons entering work for the first time, with only
The difference is that qualities that are professionally important for
persons appointed to management positions.
In accordance with the above objectives, psychodiagnostic tests should:
· identify the general level of intellectual development of the candidate,
the structure of his individual psychological properties, characteristics of temperament
and character, adaptive capabilities for the chosen profession;
· be reliable enough, have not only current
(diagnostic), but also predictive validity, i.e. give an opportunity
not only assess the current state of the candidate, but also compile scientifically
a reasonable, reliable forecast regarding his future most
effective use;
· be compact, convenient for group examination candidates V
limited periods of time using automated processing
test results;
· cross-check and complement each other in order to improve
reliability, accuracy and reliability of the results obtained.
Psychological examination of persons selected V organs prosecutor's office, as well as
promoted from the personnel reserve to leadership positions in prosecutors' offices
regional and equal levels should be made on the basis of these tests.
After a comprehensive study of the experience of professional psychological selection,
accumulated in some state legal departments close to
the nature of the work of its employees to their professional activities
prosecutors, as well as on the basis of a specially conducted
research, a battery of tests was completed, which included
The main ones included the following psychodiagnostic methods: progressive scale
matrices by J. Raven, 16-factor personality questionnaire by R.B. Cattella (16-FLO),
standardized method of personality research (SMIL) - adapted; V
as additional: M. Luscher color test, questionnaire “Level
subjective control" by A.M. Etkin, USK questionnaire, test "Behavior strategies in
conflict situation" by K. Thomas.
In the course of the study, psychological criteria of professional
the suitability revealed by the selected tests was compared with
objective criteria for evaluating prosecutors. Personal files,
as well as the fact of appointment to a leadership position in the group of prosecutors
workers from the reserve for promotion, allowed us to separate all those examined
into four groups of professional suitability:
1st group - high level of professional efficiency, complete
job compliance, highly probable forecast of professional success;
2nd group - average level of professional suitability (mostly
meets the requirements of the prosecutorial and investigative specialty);
3rd group - the candidate partially meets the requirements of the prosecutor's office
investigative specialty (can be hired if large number
vacancies);
Group 4 - low level of professional efficiency, inconsistency
candidate for official appointment, the prognosis of his professional failure.
J. Raven's Progressive Matrices Scale (Raven's test).
This test is designed to study the subject's intelligence, identify its
ability to think logically, find significant connections between objects and
phenomena, to determine the level of mental performance, ability
concentrate attention, intelligence in general, i.e. qualities,
necessary in the activities of a lawyer, and more prosecutorial and investigative
workers. Low results according to the method make it possible to identify people with reduced
intellectual, cognitive abilities, with underdeveloped
analytical mindset, unable to concentrate.
allows you to identify the degree of assimilation by the test taker specific section in a given subject area. These tests appeared in the 60s of the 20th century. Criterion-oriented tests, in turn, are divided into subject area and qualifying tests.
The purpose of a criterion-referenced test is to determine whether the test taker knows the standard educational material(subject, section, topic). As a result of testing, it may turn out that all subjects successfully completed all tasks. This means that they have mastered the training material. If all subjects failed to complete the test tasks, this means that the educational material was not mastered. In both cases, the test completed its task.
A CRITERION-BASED test is a system of tasks that allows you to measure the level of educational achievements relative to the full scope of knowledge, skills and abilities that should be acquired by students. The material for such tests are tasks from specific academic subjects and individual psychological aspects of their implementation, established by special analysis.
When comparing test results and socio-psychological standards, one judges the correspondence of the mental development of schoolchildren to the stage of age development under consideration. Comparing the results of the test with the criterion allows us to determine whether the mental actions carried out by students correspond to the logic of the material under consideration. The connections between the components of mental development specific to a particular area of educational content are subject to research. The correlation between the results of implementing “normative” and “criteria” methods could establish the characteristics of students’ mental development in mastering the content of academic subjects at a specific stage of training.
28. COURT with its content and structural characteristics correspond to a specific learning situation and act as an operational means of monitoring and evaluating its results. Typically, the limitations associated with obtaining a high test-retest reliability coefficient (in particular, the influence of training on re-testing, determining changes in the conceptual and logical development of the student, etc.) cannot but appear in a CORT situation. Thus, the results in CORT for students who have not completed a certain stage of training will differ significantly from the test results of the same students after they have mastered the educational material in question.
A domestic example of CORT is the school mental development test. SHTUR is intended for diagnosing the mental development of adolescents - students in grades 7-9.
SHTUR consists of 6 subtests, each of which can include from 15 to 25 similar tasks.
The first two subtests are aimed at identifying the general awareness of schoolchildren and allow us to judge how adequately students use certain scientific, cultural and socio-political terms and concepts in their active and passive speech.
The third subtest is aimed at identifying the ability to establish analogies, the fourth - logical classifications, the fifth - logical generalizations, the sixth - finding the rule for constructing a number series.
The SHTUR test is a group test. The time allotted for completing each subtest is limited and is sufficient for all students. The test is developed in two parallel forms A and B.
The authors of SHTUR are K.M. Gurevich, M.K. Akimova, E.M. Borisova, V.G. Zarkhin, V.T. Kozlova, G.P. Loginova. The developed test meets the high statistical criteria that any diagnostic test must meet.
32. expressed in years, indicates that a given individual, in terms of mental development, corresponds to most people of a certain age. For example, when testing a young man of 23 years old (real passport age), it was revealed that his mental age was 25 years. It follows from this that this young man is as intellectually developed as most 25-year-olds. His intelligence quotient (IQ) = 25x23 = 1.1, which is about 110% ("excellent" norm).