From the 19th century until the early 20th century, the term "enlightened world" was used. Now it is replaced by the concept of "world community "Because he was considered more politically correct.

World community - this is some hypothetical community of citizens of all countries of the world, united in an integral front in a general outburst of internationalism. The world view community "Is intended to reflect the common goals and activities of states coexisting in the world in the face of global snags of civilization. The world community is based on the rule of sovereign equality of all states. An example of the world community is the United Nations (UN). community "Is often used in works on political science, statesmen in their speeches and in the media. It is used to manipulate social judgment. This occurs when, under the definition of "world community »A certain point of view is filled in to the recipient of information. Depending on the context, it can be used as a reference to international organizations that unite approximately all countries in the world, for example, UNESCO. This representation is also used to indicate a group of countries united by political, economic, social and other signs. Often the “world community »Is used as a grandiose technique for opposing one state and its policy to another or a group of other countries. The members of the world community can be states, social unions, structures, groupings and religious associations, movements, economic and military alliances. Relations between members of the world community constitute a system of international relations, and they are their subjects. community owns a multi-component structure, which includes a lot of diverse territorial associations. A system of various ties between individual states and territorial entities is simultaneously formed and expanded.

UN is the abbreviated name for the United Nations, made in the year that World War II ended. 1945 marked the beginning of the unification of many peacekeeping organizations into one, with headquarters in the United States, New York.

Instructions

1. Before the emergence of the UN, there were organizations in Europe, North America and Russia that promoted an interstate union for the benefit of every society. In particular, the League of Nations and the diplomatic cultural education "European Concert" acted with this postulate. However, the Second World War required the emergence of a more weighty and serious structure. And at the beginning of 1945, the largest powers of the world, such as the USSR, the United States, China, Great Britain and France, at a conference in San Francisco signed an agreement establishing the United Nations. Within half a year, 45 more states joined the UN, later Poland joined them.

2. Today, the United Nations has about two hundred members, including such exotic countries as the Solomon Islands, Micronesia, Guinea-Bissau, Antigua and Barbados. A state can become a new member of the United Nations only if it is ready to establish diplomatic relations and promote peacefulness. Also, the members of the Council must vote for the candidate, with a total of at least nine positive votes out of fifteen. The decisive word belongs to the USA, Russia, China, France and Great Britain, the founding countries of the UN.

3. The United Nations has six structural units. This is the UN General Assembly, which discusses issues related to the maintenance of global peace and security at annual meetings in the presence of attorneys from 193 participating countries. Also included in the UN are the Security Council, the Economic Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. Of all the subdivisions, only the Security Council has the right to make certain decisions regarding the maintenance of peace, right up to the call of the participating countries to collective peacekeeping measures. The resolutions of all other UN divisions are of a recommendatory nature.

4. On the territory of the Soviet Union, the first institution belonging to the UN department, the preface to work three years after the creation of the United Nations. In 1948, the Information Center was opened in Moscow, later it was joined by fourteen more structures. Today, UN agencies in Russia determine the tactical formation of state programs aimed at maintaining the economic development, health of the country's population, as well as control over the demographic situation and the environment.

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It is often allowed to hear that this or that cultural heritage site is under the protection of UNESCO. The same organization patronizes various socially important events. What is UNESCO and what tasks does it set for itself?

UNESCO is an abbreviation for the full name of this organization in English: United Nations Educational, Science, Cultural Organization (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It has 195 states and 7 member-workers (territories with unrecognized With about 60 UNESCO bodies operating in all corners of the globe and headquartered in Paris, the UNESCO Director General is elected for a four-year term, and in 2009 Irina Bokova (attorney for Bulgaria) was appointed to the post. The history of the organization dates back to the 40s of the last century.In 1942, the allied countries discussed the prospects for improving the educational systems and cultural development that were supposed to be at the conclusion of World War 2. The conclusion of the negotiations was the signing of the UNESCO Charter on November 16, 1945 and the creation of a preparatory commission. The first meetings of the UNESCO General Assembly were held in Par 1946 The goal of UNESCO is to strengthen peace and establish common security by increasing the availability and quality of education everywhere, establishing a dialogue of civilizations, preserving the cultural heritage of all peoples, ensuring equality for all inhabitants of the Earth, regardless of gender and race, language and religion. UNESCO also sees its mission in conquering poverty and hunger, eradicating interethnic strife, preserving the Earth's biosphere and maintaining a microclimate. Since the early years of its existence, UNESCO has been energetically involved in the obstacles of education and science. Today, one of the main goals of the organization is the dissemination of modern communication tools to unite the global society. In particular, UNESCO has long supported the Free Software Foundation, and UNESCO is currently setting itself a lot of tasks, prioritizing African countries and gender equality.

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Political science Is the science of politics. Politics plays a huge role in the life of society, it permeates all spheres of social life. The formation of political universities of power ensures the typical functioning of society, streamlines the relationship between society and the state, as well as between the peoples of different countries.

Instructions

1. The word "political science" is of Greek origin, the literal translation of politikos is "social, state", politis is "citizen" and logos is "learning, science." Political science - a system of skills about politics, the doctrine of government.

2. The political system of society is represented by many spheres of life, including economic, social, spiritual, legal, etc. Political science as science unites in itself the comprehension of all spheres, it is a comprehensive broad study of the political system of society in the aggregate.

3. The political system of society consists of four narrowly interconnected parts: institutional, regulatory, communicative and ideological. The institutional direction of political science comprehends political universities and is dominant in science. This subsystem has the main role, because the subject of comprehension is the forms of political government, political regimes, government bodies, parties and other political movements, electoral bodies, etc.

4. The basis of the regulatory direction of political science is the political and legal norms on which the power in this or that country is based, in addition, it includes national traditions and customs, accepted beliefs and theses followed by a huge part of society.

5. The communicative direction of political science comprehends the relationship between political universities and citizens of the country. The object of comprehending the ideological direction is political views, doctrines that underlie the creation and subsequent formation of subjects of 3 other directions of political science (universities of power, political organizations, legislative and legal norms, electoral strategy, etc.).

6. Political scientists are guided by a huge number of accepted methods to find political processes and the relationship of political bodies with citizens of the state. These methods are various, however, they can be divided into three main groups.

7. General logical methods are borrowed from related sciences such as philosophy and sociology. These methods are auxiliary for political scientists: review and synthesis, induction and deduction, systematization, abstraction, etc.

8. Empirical methods of political science are associated with the search and review of real political facts. These are, first of all, statistical methods, as well as conducting surveys of the population, acquiring the judgments of specialists, etc.

9. Methodological methods represent a commonality of different methods for acquiring an assessment of the importance of current political phenomena for society, detecting dependencies between different spheres of its life (economic, social, cultural) and their power for politics. Methodological methods include the following approaches: sociological, behavioral, normative-value, anthropological, psychological, comparative, etc.

10. Politics is related to any member of society, from the fact that every citizen of the country plays a certain role in the formation of political views and trends. Political science comprehends both an individual figure (subject) and a group of individuals, society, the state, as well as the ability of one person or a group of people (power) to manage the state, to control the behavior of society in the aggregate, following the national goals.

Internal state policy is mainly aimed at solving those problems that affect aspects of the life of the population of certain regions. Most people are disunited, and therefore the state is faced with the issue of using territorial policy.

Territorial policy is an integral component of the internal policy of the state, which is aimed at leveling the tier of life on average in the regions with the help of a complex of various economic, legislative and fiscal measures. Territorial policy implies a reasonable administrative-regional division, as well as its comprehension with the whole of conducting a competent internal policy. With the help of legislative and economic levers, the state, by building a vertical ladder of communication between the subjects and the center, can quickly and comprehensively solve not only snags within the regions, but also allows it to become an arbiter in resolving conflict situations between different subjects of the country. Territorial policy has several directions, including: - identification of underdeveloped regions and subjects of the country; - stimulation of the formation of regions in need; - subsidies and other economic injections into the economies of regions in need; - allocation of regions - recipients and regions - donors. The territorial policy includes a number of elements that are designed to influence the life of the regions in the aggregate: - Fiscal policy - common means and methods for organizing tax collection by regions and subjects of the country; - Fiscal policy - especially reasonable division of budgetary funds for pouring them into regions; - Pricing policy - setting prices and tariffs on different territories oriyah of the country; - Public policy - pursuing a policy to support citizens in different subjects of the state. In particular, one of the main tasks of territorial policy is the formation of the national economy by stimulating the formation of entrepreneurship and industry in the regions. The allocation of donor regions and recipient regions allows the state to more competently “pump out” free funds from wealthy regions and pour them into regions - “poor people”.

Union, along with a particle and a preposition, refers to the official parts of speech in the morphological system of the Russian language. The name of the term indicates its function - to be a means of communication, "lead to a union" different syntactic constructions (homogeneous members and primitive sentences in the composition of a difficult one) and independent sentences in the text. In addition, the union expresses the relationship between these syntactic constructions.

You will need

• - linguistic dictionary;
• - a study guide for the Russian language.

Instructions

1. How to define a union Find a series of homogeneous members in a simple sentence. Establish a connection between them. Please note that this construction only uses conjunctive conjunctions. In the sentence "Frightened clouds swirled, pushed and ran into the distance" homogeneous predicates "pushed and ran" are connected by a compositional connection with the help of the union "and". Find the boundaries of primitive sentences in a difficult one. Establish a connection between them. In the complex sentence “The room became narrow, and the rooms were too visible”, two primitive sentences are connected with the support of the “yes” union. Find grammatical means of communication between independent sentences in the text. Often one of them is the compositional union: “The blizzard has subsided. And at once the snowdrifts settled, the snow darkened. "

2. Remember that the union, like any part of speech, has certain morphological signs. According to the morphological structure, the unions are non-derivative (antiderivatives) and derivatives. The first group is made up of unseparable and not correlated with independent parts of speech unions: and, a, either, or, etc. In another group, conjunctions that are word-formatively associated with remarkable words: therefore, so that it is true, etc. According to their structure, unions are divided into primitive, consisting of one word (like, yes, if), and combined - consisting of several words (so as, in spite of the fact that, not only ... but also). According to variants of use, unions are single (but, incidentally, the same), repeated (then ... that; or ... or; \u200b\u200band ... and), double (although ... but; only ... how; if ... then).

3. A particularly revealing function of a union is its ability to express semantic relations in a sentence. If there is an equal connection, define the compositional conjunctions (connecting, separating and adversary). If you have a subordinate clause to the main clause, define subordinate unions. Among them are: explanatory (what, in order, how); comparative (as if, as if, true); concessive (true, despite the fact that); conditional (if); temporary (as soon as, later); causal (because, because); target (after that in order, in order in order).

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Helpful advice
Do not confuse conjunctions, which are service parts of speech, and allied words, expressed by independent parts of speech (pronouns and adverbs). When distinguishing, use the technique of posing a grammatical question and determining a syntactic role. Let's say, "I said I was going to the movies." The word "what"? it is a union, because it is impossible to put a question to him, he is also not a member of the proposal. "The house that stood on the river bank was visible from afar." The union word "what" is expressed by a relative pronoun, since he is asked the question (what?), indicates the word "house" and is a subject in the subordinate clause.

The political system of any modern state is rather difficult. It includes not only the various tiers of legislative, executive and judicial branches, but also a wide range of political organizations. Parties and social movements play a significant role in the life of the state.

The place of political organizations in social life

In democratic states, political organizations have a significant impact on the implementation of foreign and domestic policies. Their action is aimed at especially complete satisfaction of the interests of the most diverse social groups, which differ in their composition and political views. Political organizations and movements are traditionally built according to a professional, ethnic or class sign. A political organization is essentially a mass association of people on a voluntary basis, which has its own personal goals, expressed in the founding and program documents. Such organizations are being built to solve not only economic, but also political problems. The main one is participation in the struggle for representation in government bodies. Any political party can be cited as an example. Being a full-fledged subject of the political process, such social associations of citizens differ from other types of organizations in that they tend to gain access to power. Political work includes campaigning among wide sections of the population, popularizing the ideas of the movement and stretching the sphere of power. Political organizations express and protect the interests of a particular social group.

Political Party

A political party is distinguished from other types of similar organizations by the traditionally rough hierarchy between different tiers, which is needed to increase the controllability of each system and well-coordinated work. The indispensable components of the party are the governing core, the control unit, the control bodies, energetic members of the organization and a significant number of sympathetic elements. Only a high degree of organization allows a political party to do well in the struggle for power. Parties and other political organizations act in anticipation of a furor in the political struggle. For this, they are zealous to enlist the help of not only a certain social stratum, but also more of the broad masses of the population. In their activities, parties are repeatedly forced to make temporary alliances with other movements and organizations that have similar goals. As usual, a political party has official membership and relatively strict rules and norms enshrined in the organization's charter. Joining the ranks of such a political association, the newest participant assumes certain responsibilities and gets the right to participate in the work of the party, in joint decision-making and in the events held by the party. For many citizens, energetic participation in the political life of a country begins with being inducted into a party whose goals and objectives are in line with their inner convictions.

Many have heard the term "sovereign" 1000 times in their lives during each study, both at school and at the institute. However, few people fully understand its true meaning in relation to such a political university as the state.

History of origin

In order to realize what the present state is now, it is necessary to remember before everyone how things were with this before. Now in the world there are about 200 sovereign states legally enshrined and recognized by the international United Nations. But even at the end of the 19th century they were not there, but there were only plots of land with an approximate border and territory belonging to one or another state. Many lands did not belong to anyone, were empty or were inhabited by nomads. The states existing at that time became the basis and prerequisite for the origin of the current, modern sovereign states. However, in modern conditions there are also territories that are currently unpopulated or only partially inhabited. There are even territories inhabited by a radical population, completely isolated from civilization and all public universities.

Sovereign state now

Despite the fact that the distinguishing mark of a sovereign state is its isolation and independence, this does not mean at all that it does not consider the interests of other states in its activities and does not cooperate with them both in political, market and social issues. The interaction of all sovereign states is based on the rule of international law, which establishes certain theses, rules and laws that are integral to all. At the same time, no one has the right to interfere in the affairs of a sovereign state without her permission. In order for the current state to be considered sovereign, it must be recognized as such, and this recognition does not invariably signify the desire of the one who recognized to establish diplomatic relations with him. Despite the fact that many sovereign states in modern conditions are such both de jure and de facto, individual representatives have sovereignty in their country only on paper, that is, they are de jure sovereign, but in fact do not have control of their territory ... The Order of Malta can be cited as a shining example of such a story. At the same time, the opposite situation may develop, when the territory belongs to the state, and it does not support international relations by any other state. The main goal of all sovereign states is now the legal representation of their citizens, control over the observance of their rights and wills. In a sovereign state, the supremacy belongs to the government, to which the people entrust all issues related to their own rights.

Globalization is called the transformation of a phenomenon from the scale of one country into a phenomenon of the world tier. That is, what once concerned one state or some of its territory, in the process of globalization, begins to affect directly or implicitly all the inhabitants of the Earth.

The pivotal result of globalization is the distribution of labor on the international level, the widespread migration of human and production sources, the international standardization of technical and economic processes, as well as the mutual penetration of cultures of different states. Globalization encompasses all spheres of social life, and as a result, the world becomes more dependent on its individual parts. However, it is extremely clear that the process of globalization can be traced in the economy - world markets are being formed, there is an integration of different directions of the world economy. At the end of the last century, world integration reached a special rapid pace, which was facilitated by the fall of the "Iron Curtain" and the collapse of the USSR, as well as the energetic inclusion of China in the world economy and the global strong formation of information special technologies. The phenomenon of globalization has both positive and negative results. Moreover, different specialists, scientists, politicians usually interpret the same results of globalization in different ways. So, apparently, as a result of globalization, an integral transnational economic system is being formed, and interstate borders today are becoming less and less important over the past decade. This is evidenced by the increasing rate of migration of peoples from different countries on each planet. This, permissible, will lead to the formation of the so-called "sociomonolith" - indivisible according to national, political, religious and other signs of society. Some consider this an excellent inclination, while others advocate the preservation of individual cultures and economies in any given country. At the same time, it seems that the formation of an indivisible integral society is an inevitable consequence of the process of globalization, one that is gaining more and more rapid cycles these days. And an especially correct result of such a comprehensive unification of the world can be the solution of one of the most serious tasks on a planetary scale, which for millennia has not left our planet - the danger of interethnic wars and armed collisions. There is a social and political movement of opponents of globalization - anti-globalization. Prominent scientists, economists, social activists and other social activists who criticize the process of global economic, political and cultural integration into the whole world community often become its members.

Tip 10: How to Prefer a Community for VK Advertising

Instructions

2. Strictly watch coverage. Desirable, so that the price of one advertising post was no more than 50 kopecks for any 100 coverage of subscribers.

3. Be sure to check where the visitors are mostly coming from. If from external sites - treat such a group with doubt, it is permissible that it contains many bots.

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For a long time now, science has been discussing such a major and serious snag as the population explosion. Scientists are seriously concerned about its consequences. There is a debate in society about the probabilities of eliminating its causes and outcomes.

A demographic explosion is a sharp spike in population growth. This process occurs mainly due to a decrease in mortality and an increase in fertility in the progressive countries of the world. At the end of the 17th century. the growth rate of the world's population has actually doubled, which was due to a number of factors. Firstly, it is connected with the formation of the industry. Secondly, the population explosion is due to socio-economic changes that have allowed women to work on an equal basis with men. Third, the mortality tier dropped sharply. At the current time, the number of our planet is approximately 7 billion people, each year the arrival is from 80 to 85 million people. The demographic explosion has several characteristics: the metamorphosis of the population size leads to an increase in unemployment, as well as to a change in many socio-economic relations. Moreover, this applies not only to progressing countries, but also to each world community, becoming one of the global snags of our time. Now the population explosion is practically imperceptible, tea population growth rates are much reduced in comparison with the 1960s, which were distinguished by the highest rates, but however, the danger of overpopulation persists. This applies exclusively to African countries (such as Nigeria, Angola and others), where demographic growth is still very high. In addition, in some countries, such as China, they had to resort to formidable measures. Families with one child enjoy different benefits, and husbands with 2 or more children are required to pay a fine, the amount of which depends on income and place of residence. One of the snags was the reluctance of many residents to take family planning seriously. This is largely due to world religions, which adhere to a conservative position in relation to children. The results of the population explosion can be dire: the regression of the world economy, poverty, hunger and the depletion of all the sources of the planet available to society.

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Today the concept of “society” has become even broader than it was mentioned above. Indeed, a society can be understood as a separate country, or all countries of the world. In this case, we must talk about the world community.

If society is understood in two meanings - narrow and wide, then the transition from a separate taken society, considered in the unity of its territorial boundaries (country) and political structure (state), to the world community, or the world system, which implies all of humanity as an essential whole, is inevitable. ...

The idea of \u200b\u200ba global or, as they say today, planetary, unity of all people did not always exist. It appeared only in the 20th century. World wars, earthquakes, international conflicts made the earthlings feel the commonality of their fate, dependence on each other, the feeling that they are all passengers of the same ship, the well-being of which depends on each of them. Nothing like this happened in previous centuries. Even 500 years ago it was difficult to say that people living on earth were united into a single system. In the past, humanity was an extremely variegated mosaic composed of isolated formations - hordes, tribes, kingdoms, empires, which had an independent economy, politics and culture.

Since then, the process of creating a world system has accelerated dramatically. This was especially felt after the era of great geographical discoveries (although the beginning was laid earlier), when the Europeans became aware of everything, even the most distant corners planets. Today we can only talk about geographical remoteness or the separate existence of countries and continents. In a social, political and economic sense, the planet is a single space.

The central governing body of the world community is the United Nations (UN). All countries are subordinate to it, it provides humanitarian assistance, protects cultural monuments and sends peacekeeping forces (UN Blue Helmets) to almost all corners of the Earth. Today, regional associations such as the European Community are being formed in the world community, which includes 12 countries with 345 million people, united by an economic, monetary and political union. The community has a Council of Ministers and a European Parliament.

The main factor in the development of world civilization is the tendency towards uniformity. Facilities mass media (Media) are transforming our planet into a "big village". Millions of people witness events that took place in different places, millions of people share the same cultural experience (Olympiads, rock concerts), which unifies their tastes. The same consumer goods are used everywhere. Migration, temporary work abroad, tourism introduce people to the lifestyle and customs of other countries. When they talk about the world community, they mean the process of globalization, the consequence of which such a community has become.

Our world is gradually turning into a global communication system, in which societies break up into separate groups that flow, depending on changing life priorities, from one social network to another. It is possible that to describe the new situation, the term network societies is more suitable, where there is a continuous exchange of information and which are not closed, thanks to global networks, within their state borders.

As a result of Russia's joining the world information community, the main content of social interaction in Russian society is the continuous exchange of information. This position of A.N. Kacherov substantiated using the results of empirical research *, as a result of which he came to the following conclusions:

since the breakthrough of information flows to Russia (starting approximately from 1989-1992), there has been a reduction in the number of direct contacts or so-called "face-to-face" interaction;

the number of contacts by means of communication (telephone, fax, computer networks) has increased;

there is an exponential growth of "artificial" interaction based on radio and television;

personal contacts between individuals are reduced in number and duration of time due to the fact that the increased speed of information flows forces people to avoid unnecessary emotional stress and energy consumption in personal contacts.

The entry of Russia into the system of world communications to a certain extent - to a large extent or not, it remains to be seen by sociologists - has changed the traditional way of life, its channels and ways of communication. A modern resident of a large metropolis has at his disposal all the necessary means of communication and is connected to the global communications network. The more calls to the network he accepts or makes, the more he corresponds to the lifestyle adopted in the world information community. The old content of communications - scientific conversations, complaints and squabbles, conversations with friends and mistresses, administrative or business negotiations - are clothed today in a new technical form.

Globalization is a historical process of rapprochement between nations and peoples, between which traditional borders are gradually being erased and humanity is turning into a single political system. Since the middle of the 20th century and especially in recent decades, the trend towards globalization has qualitatively influenced society. National and regional stories no longer make sense.

Preindustrial society was an extremely variegated, heterogeneous mosaic of isolated social units ranging from hordes, tribes, kingdoms, empires to the newly emerging nation-state. Each of these units had an independent and self-sufficient economy, its own culture. Post-industrial society is completely different. In political terms, there are supranational units of various scales: political and military blocs (NATO), imperial spheres of influence (former socialist camp), coalitions of ruling groups (G7), continental associations (European Community), world international organizations (UN). The contours of the world government in the person of the European Parliament and INTERPOL are already obvious. The role of regional and world economic agreements is growing. There is a global division of labor, the role of multinational and transnational corporations is growing, which often have incomes that exceed the income of the average national state. Companies such as Toyota, McDonald's, Pepsi-Cola or General Motors have lost their national roots and operate all over the world. Financial markets react to events with lightning speed.

The tendency towards uniformity becomes dominant in culture. The mass media (media) are turning our planet into a "big village". Millions of people witness events that have taken place in different places, millions of people are exposed to the same cultural experience (Olympiads, rock concerts), which unifies their tastes. The same consumer goods are in use everywhere. Migration, temporary work abroad, tourism introduce people to the lifestyle and customs of other countries. A single, or at least a generally accepted spoken language, English, is being formed. Computer technology is spreading the same software all over the world. Western popular culture is becoming universal, and local traditions are being eroded.

Along with the term "world community" in science, other concepts are widely used, very similar to it, but possessing their own distinctive features. You can meet them by reading not only special literature or textbooks, but also the press, listening to radio and television. Let's take a look at them. It will be about the world system, world economic system, world empire, civilization.

The term "world system" was introduced into scientific circulation by Immanuel Wallerstein *. He believed that the familiar word "society", borrowed by scientists from everyday practice, is too imprecise, since it is almost impossible to separate it from the term "state" in a consistent way. Instead of both, he proposed the concept of "historical system", thanks to which, as he believed, two kinds of sciences would finally be reunited - historical (ideographic) and social (nomothetic). The old term "society" separated them, and the new term is intended to unite them. In the concept of "historical system", sociological and historical views to the world.

Besides him, Niklas Luhmann wrote about world society. He defined society through communication and communicative reach. But if this is so, then the only closed system that is not part of another, built on the principles of communication, is only world society.

According to I. Wallerstein, there are only three forms, or varieties, of historical systems, which he called mini-systems, world empires and world economies (although other varieties can be distinguished). Mini-systems are small in size, short-lived (life span of about six generations) and culturally homogeneous. World empires are large political structures, culturally they are much more diverse. The way of existence is the withdrawal of tribute from subordinate territories, primarily rural districts, which flows to the center and is redistributed among a small stratum of officials. World economies are huge, unequal chains of integrated production structures, separated by numerous political structures. The logic of their existence is that the surplus value is unevenly distributed in favor of those who were able to seize a temporary monopoly on the market. This is "capitalist" logic *.

In that distant era, which we can only judge from archaeological excavations, when gatherers and hunters lived on the earth, mini-systems were the predominant form. At an early stage in history, many social systems existed simultaneously. Since these societies were mainly tribal, one should proceed from the existence of many thousands of social systems *. Later, in connection with the transition to agriculture and the invention of writing, namely in the period between 8000 BC. e. and 1500 AD e. on earth all three types of "historical systems" coexisted simultaneously, but the dominant one was the world empire, which, expanding, destroyed and absorbed both mini-systems and world economies. But when world empires fell apart, mini-systems and world economies reappeared on their ruins. History seems to be reminiscent of the cycle of substances in nature.

Most of what we call the history of this period is the history of the emerging and dying world empires, says I. Wallerstein. The world economies at that time were still too weak to compete with the three forms of "historical systems."

Around 1500, out of the consolidation of scattered world economies that miraculously survived the next invasion of world empires, the modern world system was born. Since then, “it has reached its full development as a capitalist system. By its internal logic, this capitalist world economy then expanded and took over the entire globe, absorbing all existing mini-systems and world empires. Thus, by the end of the XIX century. for the first time in history, only one historical system appeared on Earth. We still exist in this position ”*.

The theory of the world system, created by I. Wallerstein in the mid-70s, makes it possible to explain many historical facts that defied the explanation of the traditional theory of society. Undoubtedly, the hypothesis of the cyclical emergence and disintegration of world empires is very heuristic, among which it is necessary to include our country, which took the form of either the tsarist autocracy, or the Soviet totalitarian state. From the eternal cycle of historical forms of society follows not only the inevitability of the collapse of social giants and the emergence of social dwarfs. But also the hypothesis about internal instability "Loosely packed", loose in terms of specific gravity of a gram of "social substance" per unit area of \u200b\u200bworld empires. Internal cultural heterogeneity did not allow the USSR to exist until the third millennium, despite hard external political control.

All world empires were very fragile and unstable. What is the empire of the Mongols in the XIV century, which included the conquered Russia, as a non-heterogeneous and internally contradictory union, where power was held only "on bayonets"?

If many territories are united only by the fact that taxes or tribute are collected from them, then such a union is doomed to disintegration. Even the presence of a single political center and governing bodies does not help. Although Russian princes went to the Horde to ask for a letter to rule, this ritual remained an empty formality, since none of the Mongolian "top managers" ever interfered in the internal affairs of appanage princes. In a similar way, in the 70s and 80s, Soviet party functionaries ceased to control the abuses and freethinking of “appanage princes” in Uzbekistan, the republics of the Transcaucasus and even the Volga regions. The autonomy of the periphery in relation to the center turned into a tragedy for the entire system.

World empires included several territories united by military and political power. The empires of the Incas, Alexander the Great, Darius I, Napoleon, and finally the USSR, which is also referred to the type of world empires, represented very heterogeneous (culturally, socially, economically, less often religiously), vast in territory, politically fragile formations. They were created forcibly and quickly disintegrated.

Europeans have long practiced transoceanic trade and economics. They became the pioneers of a new form of the "historical system" - the world system. Over time, all over the world, people fell into the European sphere of influence. The beginning of European hegemony can be traced back to the Crusades - Christian military expeditions undertaken between the 11th and 14th centuries to reclaim the "sacred land" from the Muslims. The Italian city-states used them to expand trade routes. In the 15th century, Europe established regular ties with Asia and Africa, and then with America. Europeans colonized other continents, arriving as sailors, missionaries, merchants, and officials. Columbus' discovery of America united the Old and New Worlds forever. Spain and Portugal mined slaves, gold and silver in foreign countries, pushing the natives into remote areas.

With the development of non-European territories, not only the nature of economic ties has changed, but the whole way of life. If earlier, literally until the middle of the 17th century, the diet of a European consisted of subsistence products, that is, what was grown inside the continent by rural residents, then in the 18th and 19th centuries, the assortment of items, primarily of the highest class (it always goes at the forefront of progress) includes imports. One of the first overseas commodities was sugar. After 1650, it was consumed not only by the upper strata, but also by the middle, and then by the lower. A century earlier, a similar story happened with tobacco. By 1750, even the poorest English family could drink sugar tea. From India, where for the first time sugar was obtained in a production way, Europeans brought it to the New World. The climate in Brazil and the Caribbean created ideal conditions for the cultivation of sugar cane. Europeans have established plantations here to meet the growing demand for sugar around the world. The demand for sugar and its supply led to the international market, and subsequently to the slave trade. Cheap labor was needed for the growing plantation economy, and Africa was the labor market. Sugar and cotton became the main subject of international trade, linking continents on opposite sides of the ocean.

In the 17th century, two trade triangles developed, including the sugar and slave trade. First, the goods produced by England were sold in Africa, and African slaves were sold in America, while American tropical goods (especially sugar) were sold to England and its neighbors. Secondly, alcoholic beverages from England were delivered by ships to Africa, African slaves to the Caribbean, and molasses (from sugar) was sent to New England to make alcoholic beverages. African slave labor increased American wealth, which mostly returned to Europe. Products grown by slaves were consumed in Europe. Here from Brazil came coffee, paints, sugar and spices, from North America - cotton and alcohol.

Gradually, international trade became the dominant factor in development. Soon, capitalism began to be defined as an economic orientation to the world market in order to generate income. The concept of a world capitalist economy has developed - a single world system involved in production for sale and exchange more with the aim of increasing profits than to ensure the well-being of the people. Now it indicates in which direction individual countries should move. The modern world is a world system based on capitalism, which is why it is called the “capitalist world system”.

“The capitalist world economy is the unit of analysis of the modern world system,” writes I. Wallerstein *.

The world economic system is a set of territories or countries united by economic ties. This concept is broader than the world capitalist economy, since it includes countries with a capitalist and non-capitalist economy in its orbit, but also than the concept of the world system.

The world capitalist economy is the highest and final form of the world economic system. It has existed for almost 500 years, but it never turned into a world empire. Transnational corporations are outside the control of a single government. They freely transfer huge amounts of capital across state borders. The so-called socialist camp, which included the USSR, Cuba, Romania, East Germany, Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, should be classified as a type of world economic systems. They did not have a single government, each country is a sovereign state. So this is not an empire. But between them there was an international division of labor, cooperation and economic exchange within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). In a broad sense, the world system includes all the countries currently existing on the planet. She received the name of the world community.

So, at the global level, society is turning into a world system, which is also called the world community. There are two forms of such a system - world empires (many territories, politically united into one state entity) and world economic systems (countries developing a similar economy, but not politically united into one state).

Civilizations belong to the type of world, or global, systems. But in contrast to the world system, civilization reflects the socio-cultural, not the economic and political aspect of human development. This concept, like a world empire or world system, is broader than a country or state. It is also advisable to talk about civilization specially.

Civilization, like the previous concepts, reflects the global level of human society, where the integration of social systems takes place. Scientists continue to argue about its content. Civilization is understood by them in two meanings.

In the first case, civilization denotes a historical epoch that replaced "barbarism", in other words, it marks the highest stage of human development. O. Spengler's definition is adjacent to it: civilization is the highest stage of cultural development, at which its final decline occurs. Both approaches are related by the fact that civilization is thought of historically - as a stage of progressive or regressive movement of society.

In the second case, civilization is associated with a geographical place, implying local, regional and global civilizations, for example, eastern and western civilizations. They differ in economic structure and culture (a set of norms, customs, traditions, symbols), which includes a specific understanding of the meaning of life, justice, fate, the role of work and leisure. Thus, eastern and western civilizations differ precisely by these fundamental features. They are based on specific values, philosophy, principles of life and a way of the world. And within the framework of such global concepts, specific differences of people in behavior, manner of dress, types of dwelling are formed.

Today scholars have agreed that the first and second approaches are applicable only to societies that stand at a sufficiently high level of difference, wherever they are geographically located. In this case, outside civilization, in particular, the primitive societies of Polynesia and Oceania, where a primitive way of life still exist, there is no written language, cities and states, are found out. It turns out a kind of paradox: they have culture, there is no civilization (where there is no written language, there is no civilization). Thus, society and culture arose earlier, and civilization later. In the entire history of existence in conditions of civilization, humanity has lived no more than 2% of the time.

The combination of place and time provides a strikingly rich palette of civilizations. Historically known, in particular, the Eurasian, Eastern, European, Western, Muslim, Christian, antique, medieval, modern, ancient Egyptian, Chinese, East Slavic and other civilizations.

The same I. Wallerstein, mentioned above, divided the world system into three parts:

semi-periphery,

periphery.

The core - the countries of Western Europe, North America, Japan - includes the strongest and most powerful states with an improved production system. They have the most capital, the highest quality goods, the most sophisticated technologies and means of production. These countries export expensive and high-tech products to the periphery and semi-periphery.

The states of the semi-periphery and periphery are the countries of the so-called "second" and "third" world. They have less power, wealth, and influence.

The term “third world” was coined by the French in 1952 to describe a group of countries that, during the Cold War era between the USA and the USSR (respectively, the first and second worlds) did not join any of the warring parties. Among them were Yugoslavia, Egypt, India, Ghana and Indonesia. In the second half of the 50s, the term takes on a broader meaning. He began to designate all underdeveloped countries. Thus, its meaning was filled not with geographical but with economic content. The underdeveloped countries began to include all of Latin America, all of Africa (excluding South Africa), all of Asia (excluding Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Israel). And some countries, such as the countries of the African Sahara, Haiti and Bangladesh, burdened with extreme poverty and misery, were even included in the fourth world. They were separated from the third world, which was already on the path of economic progress.

The peripheral countries are the most backward and poorest states in Africa and Latin America. They are considered a raw material appendage of the kernel. Mineral resources are mined but not processed locally, but exported. Most of the surplus product is appropriated by foreign capital. The local elite invests outside their own state, they enter the service of foreign capital and serve only its interests (even if these people do not go abroad). Political regimes are unstable, coups often occur, social and national conflicts constantly arise. The upper class is not separated from the lower by a broad stratum of the middle class.

Since their well-being depends on the export of raw materials, technology and capital come only from outside. Governments, most often dictatorial or authoritarian regimes, exist and are capable of more or less reasonably managing the country as long as foreign investment comes. But Western aid often ends up in the pockets of government officials or in their overseas accounts. Such governments are unstable; they continually unleash international conflicts, internal wars and insurgencies. A similar thing happens in the countries of Latin America, Iran and the Philippines. Even after revolutions, it does not get easier for them. New governments turn to repression, quickly reveal their incapacity and soon they are ousted.

The demographic situation in the third world countries is characterized by contradictory processes: high fertility and high infant mortality; migration from overcrowded villages to underdeveloped cities in search of jobs.

Since the 1960s, third and fourth world countries have borrowed several billion dollars from developed countries. Loans were taken during the period of economic growth in the West, therefore, at low interest rates, but they have to be given out in completely different conditions. The total debt to the West has exceeded $ 800 billion, but there is no way in which borrowers could pay off creditors. The largest debtors are Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Venezuela, Nigeria, Peru, Chile and Poland. Trying to keep the economies of these countries afloat, Western lenders are forced to refinance loans. But more often they are faced with partial or complete insolvency of a particular country. Failure to meet debt obligations on such a large scale is destroying the international financial system.

In 1998, Russia declared its insolvency to Western investors. A scandal broke out, and then a global crisis, which the world has not known since the end of World War II. Some Western banks that bought government securities (GKO) in Russia went bankrupt or were on the verge of bankruptcy. Russia, which previously held firmly among the developed economic powers, essentially showed that it belongs to the third world countries.

The worst thing is that, as experience shows, abundant infusions of foreign investment in such countries do little to help them get out of the crisis. To improve the situation, an internal restructuring of the economy is needed.

The semi-periphery occupies an intermediate position between the nucleus and the periphery. These are quite developed industrial ones. Like the core states, they export industrial and non-industrial goods, but they lack the power and economic power of the core countries. For example, Brazil (a semi-peripheral country) exports cars to Nigeria and motors for cars, orange juice extract and coffee to the United States. Production is mechanized and automated, but all or most of the technological advances with which their own industry is armed are borrowed from the countries of the core. The semi-periphery includes intensively developing countries with dynamic politics and a growing middle class.

If we transfer the classification of Wahlerstein in terms of D. Bell's theory of post-industrial society, then we get the following relations:

the core is post-industrial societies;

semi-periphery - industrial societies;

periphery - traditional (agrarian) societies.

As already mentioned, the world system took shape gradually. Accordingly, different countries at different times could play the role of leaders in the core, roll back to the periphery, or take the place of semi-periphery.

Usually one state dominates the core. In the XIV century, the Northern Italian city-states dominated world trade. Holland led in the 17th century, England after 1750, and the United States after 1900. And in 1560, the core of the world system was located in Western Europe (England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain). The North Italian city-states, which were previously the most powerful, have joined the semi-periphery. North-Eastern Europe and Latin America were the periphery. Many societies (especially in Oceania and the interior regions of Africa and Asia) were until recently outside the periphery. For a long time they could not join the world capitalist economy, producing and consuming their own products, that is, engaging in subsistence farming. There are virtually no such countries today. The countries of the former Soviet bloc (Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, etc.) are classified as countries of the "second world". For a long time they were fenced off from the world capitalist system. Now they are credited to the periphery or semi-periphery.

The theory of the nucleus and periphery of I. Wahlerstein, put forward in the 1980s, is today considered correct in principle, but in need of a certain correction and addition. According to the new approach, the basis of the modern international community, which is sometimes referred to as the "transnational world", is made up of leading international organizations, 50-60 major financial and industrial blocs, as well as about 40 thousand TNCs. The Global Economic Federation is permeated with close economic, political and cultural ties. The largest Western corporations, creating branches all over the world, primarily in the third world countries, entangle the whole world with financial and commodity flows. They make different regions of the world economically dependent on each other.

In this global space, the post-industrial North, which controls trade and financial channels, the highly industrial West - the totality of the national economies of the leading industrialized developed countries, the intensively developing new East, building economic life within the framework of the neo-industrial model, the raw materials South, which lives mainly through the exploitation of natural resources, stand out, as well as the states of the post-communist world that are in a state of transition.

The movement of the world towards a new type of unification is called the geo-economic or geopolitical restructuring of the planet. The new international space is characterized by two tendencies: a) concentration of making important strategic decisions in a small group of leading powers, such as the G7 (after Russia joined it, which became the G8), b) the erosion of centralized regions and formations into many independent points , the sovereignty of small states, increasing their role in the world community (for example, the events in Yugoslavia, Palestine, etc.). There is confrontation and misunderstanding between the two tendencies.

Important political and economic decisions made by a narrow circle of people can lead to serious consequences in different parts of the world, sometimes affecting the fate of the population of entire countries. An example is the influence of the United States on events in Yugoslavia, when America forced almost all European countries to join the military pressure on the Serbs. Although this decision itself is beneficial to a small handful of politicians in the US Congress.

The world community is immensely powerful. Before he applied economic sanctions on Iraq, a small part of its social structure was rich and just as poor. The general population lived at an average level even by European standards. And after several years of the embargo, the national currency depreciated. The bulk of the middle class fell to the poor.

As the most powerful economic state in the world, the United States also behaves like a political monopoly. Dollars make a one-dollar-one-vote policy. Behind the decisions taken on behalf of international organizations, such as the Security Council, IMF, IBRD, WTO, again financed by developed countries, hide the intention and will of a narrow circle of leading powers.

Displaced to the political and economic periphery, the countries of the South, or developing countries, are fighting the hegemony of the superpowers with the means available to them. Some choose the model of civilized market development and, like Chile and Argentina, are rapidly catching up with the economically developed North and West. Others, due to various circumstances, deprived of such an opportunity, embark on the "warpath". They create ramified criminal and terrorist organizations and mafia formations scattered all over the world. Islamic fundamentalism, the Medellian cartel ...

In the new world order, everything is connected with everything. The world monetary and financial system, the strength of which is set by world leaders, primarily the United States, Germany, Japan, England, is no longer as stable as before. Financial crises on the periphery of this system, to which its whales may not have paid attention before, today shake the entire world system. Crisis 1997-1998 in Indonesia and Russia had a strong impact on financial exchanges around the world. Industrial giants have lost billions of dollars.

The world community is immensely powerful. Before he applied economic sanctions to Iraq, in the social structure of the latter, a small part was rich and just as poor. The general population lived at an average level even by European standards. And after several years of the embargo, the national currency depreciated. The bulk of the middle class fell to the poor.

* In a narrow sense, society means:

a certain group of people who have come together to communicate and jointly perform any activity,

a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country,

a complex system of interaction between people, which has its own structure and institutions.

* The most complete list of necessary and sufficient features that must correspond to any social association that claims to be called a society was given by the famous American sociologist E. Shils.

the association is not part of any larger system (society);

marriages are concluded between representatives of this association;

it is replenished mainly by the children of those people who are already its recognized representatives;

the association has a territory that it considers its own;

it has its own name and its own history;

it has its own control system;

the association exists longer than the average life span of an individual;

it is united by a common system of values \u200b\u200b(customs, traditions, norms, laws, rules, morals), which is called culture.

• * Society is divided into four main areas - economic, political, social and cultural.
• * The economic sphere includes four main activities: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. It includes not only firms, enterprises, factories, banks, markets, but also flows of money and investments, capital turnover, etc.
• * The political sphere is the president and the presidential apparatus, the government and parliament (Federal Assembly), its apparatus, local authorities (provincial, regional), army, police, tax and customs service, which together make up the state, as well as political parties not included in it.
• * The spiritual sphere (culture, science, religion and education) includes universities and laboratories, museums and theaters, art galleries and research institutes, magazines and newspapers, cultural monuments and national art treasures, religious communities, etc.
• * The social sphere covers classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relations and interactions with each other. It is understood in two senses - broad and narrow.

The social sphere of society in a broad sense is a set of organizations and institutions responsible for the welfare of the population.

The social sphere in a narrow sense means only socially unprotected segments of the population and the institutions serving them.

* One of the most complete and conceptually clear models of society was created in the middle of the 19th century by the great German thinker Karl Marx. According to his views, any society consists of a base and a superstructure.

The basis is a dialectical unity of productive forces and production relations.

The superstructure includes ideology, culture, art, education, science, politics, religion, family.

• * As an ideal, civil society personifies an ideal society - a society of free, sovereign individuals endowed with the broadest civil and political rights, actively participating in government, freely expressing their thoughts, freely satisfying various needs: creating any organizations and parties aimed at protecting interests of these individuals.
• * Civil society as a reality coincides with civil society as an ideal only in one case - when the rule of law is established. It is based on the rule of law in society, the freedom of people, their equality in rights as innate human properties. Members of society voluntarily accept certain restrictions and undertake to obey the general laws.
• * The totalitarian state is the basic concept of sociology. It is characterized by such features as:

suppression apparatus;

persecution of dissidents;

strict censorship and abolition of freedom of speech;

dictatorship of one political party;

monopoly of state property;

genocide against one's own people;

suppression of the individual, alienation from the state.

• * The global, world-historical process of the ascent of human societies from the state of savagery to the heights of civilization is called social progress.
• * Reform is a partial improvement in any area of \u200b\u200blife, a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the foundations of the existing social system.
• * Revolution - a complex change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing system. It is of an abrupt nature and represents the transition of society from one qualitative state to another.
• * According to their typology, societies are divided into closed and open, preliterate and written, primitive, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist, preindustrial, industrial and postindustrial, stable and unstable, transitional and stable, stagnant and dynamically developing, wild barbaric and civilized and .d.
• * Modern sociology uses all typologies, combining them into some synthetic model. American sociologist Daniel Bell is considered its creator. He divided world history into three stages: pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial.
• * The development of human society successively goes through three stages, corresponding to three main types of society: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial.
• * The transition from the primitive phase to the pre-industrial, or traditional society is called the Neolithic revolution, and from it to the industrial one is called the industrial revolution.
• * Communities - associations of several groups of people connected by mutual marriages, labor cooperation and a common territory.
• * Chiefdom is a hierarchically organized system of people, in which there is no ramified administrative apparatus, which is an integral feature of a mature state.
• * Cattle breeding - more effective method obtaining means of subsistence based on the domestication (domestication) of wild animals. Pastoralists, like hunters and gatherers, led a nomadic lifestyle.
• * Cultivation of plants is the process of converting wild plants into crops, which means the transition to agriculture.
• * With the emergence of the ancient Eastern states, we can talk about an important historical process - the transition from scattered communities, often at war with each other, to a cohesive, politically organized society.
• * Complex societies include those where surplus product, commodity-money relations, social inequality and social stratification (slavery, castes, estates, classes), a specialized and widely ramified management apparatus appear.
• * Agrarian society is a set of cities and suburban areas united by economic exchange.
• * Law - a set of generally binding rules of conduct (norms) established or sanctioned by the state.
• * Signs of complex societies:

resettlement of people in cities;

development of non-agricultural labor specialization;

the emergence and accumulation of a surplus product;

the emergence of clear class distances;

transition from customary law to legal laws;

the emergence of the practice of large-scale public works such as irrigation and pyramid building;

the emergence of international trade;

the emergence of writing, mathematics and culture.

• * The generalized formula of a complex society can be expressed as follows: state, stratification, civilization.
• * The modern concept of society was formed in European culture not earlier than the 17th - 18th centuries. At the end of the 18th century, the concept of "civil society" emerged. It described the manners and customs of the entire people, the initiative and self-government of the population, and finally, participation in the political life of ordinary people, not directed by the state, but arising spontaneously.
• * Industrialization - the application of scientific knowledge to industrial technology, the discovery of new sources of energy, allowing machines to do the work that people or draft animals used to do. The transition to industry was as significant a revolution for mankind as the transition to agriculture in its time.
• * In a post-industrial society, the main role is played not by industry and production, but by science and technology.
• * An industrial society can be defined by the amount of goods produced, and a post-industrial society - by the ability to generate and transmit information.
• * Modernization is understood as a revolutionary transition from a pre-industrial to an industrial, or capitalist society, carried out through complex reforms stretched over time. It implies a radical change in social institutions and the way of life of people, covering all spheres of society.
• * Today the concept of “society” has become even broader than it was mentioned above. Indeed, a society can be understood as a separate country, or all countries of the world. In this case, we must talk about the world community.
• * Globalization is a historical process of rapprochement of nations and peoples, between which traditional borders are gradually being erased and humanity is turning into a single political system.
• * The world economic system is a set of territories or countries united by economic ties.

the term of the theory and practice of international relations, indicating the maximum degree of generalization of the perception of the world international legal situation and denoting the systemic totality of all existing subjects of international law, both state ones, and others, who are members of this community. firmly entered the political lexicon of our time and serves as the object of appeal, as well as the subject of the highest motivation for international initiatives of a global nature. A reference to the will of S.M., as well as an indication of actions performed on his behalf, motivated by his interests, are present in the texts of official documents of the UN and other international organizations. Members of S.m. are peoples, states, public structures of groupings, unions and other associations of this kind, religious associations and movements, organizations, governmental and non-governmental, incl. The UN and other international organizations and institutions of a worldwide nature, as well as regional interstate political, economic, military alliances, transnational economic institutions and structures, international scientific institutions, etc. Political, economic, social diplomatic, legal, military, humanitarian ties and relations between members of S. together constitute a system of international relations, the subjects of which they are.

Before acquiring its modern meaning, the concept of S.m passed a long historical path, and its evolution continues. Reflections on S.M. are found in antiquity. authors, and later - among the thinkers of the Renaissance, although both of them meant by this something significantly different from today's understanding of this concept. For a long time, the concept of "sm." meant primarily the relationship of the monarchs. Legal mechanisms were formed only to the extent that they were necessary to maintain interstate relations.

After the First World War, the modern concept of "SM" was formed. An important factor in the development of the concept of "SM" was the condemnation of the war as a way of achieving the goals of the state. The split of the world into two opposing camps, socialist and capitalist, that occurred at the same time, did not implore the significance of this factor, since Soviet Russia recognized most of the principles of peaceful coexistence of states.

The concept of S.m. in the nuclear missile age, it acquires a meaning and quality that is fundamentally different from the ideas of the past. Comprehension of the objective interdependence of the common destiny of mankind in the second. floor. 20th century led to the fact that it was during this period that a largely contradictory, but nevertheless real, S.m. The realities of the Cold War created unfavorable conditions for a stable all-planetary community of countries and peoples, but the threat of total annihilation turned war from a universal means of redistributing the world or establishing world domination into a means of strategic balancing and contributed to the mutual containment of the two blocs, limiting their activity. The factor of moral assessment of the actions of this or that state by S.M. Against the background of intersystem ideological confrontation, a pragmatic thesis about the peaceful coexistence of socialism and capitalism developed, which became the foundation of the policy of detente.

A new stage in the formation of S.m. began after the collapse of the world socialist system. The elimination of global ideological antagonism made it possible to speak about the development of a strategy for the development of all mankind. Cm. today it has a multi-component structure replete with a variety of regional associations, but at the same time a system of diverse ties between regional entities and individual states is developing and steadily expanding, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the Paris Club of creditor countries, etc. are functioning.

Global community is a set of elements between which there are stable connections, dependencies, relationships. It is a single system with its own special system-forming characteristics, structural components and functions. But this inevitably raises the question of institutional infrastructure or simply structure. If at the level of the internal political system, the structure is grouped around the state, which acts as its pivotal element, then in the international political system, this problem turns out to be, at first glance, insoluble due to the absence of a single pivotal element. The structure implies the organization, ordering, systematization, structuring of the constituent elements. In the international political system, these principles are ensured by the approval and infrastructure of interaction of the main subjects of international politics in the person of independent, self-determined actors of a particular historical era: city-states, empires or nation states.

It must be taken into account that structure is an abstraction based on a certain ranking of institutions and relations. But the question remains about the principles and forms of the ranking itself. In the internal political system, it is established in accordance with the current written or unwritten constitutions. Its constituent elements are arranged in the order of hierarchical subordination of lower levels to higher ones. Some - higher levels - are called upon to command or control, while others - lower levels - to obey. A national government not only has the power to enact laws that are binding on all citizens of the state, but, as a rule, also has sufficient resources and means to control the actions of all citizens under its jurisdiction.

Therefore, the internal political system is characterized as hierarchical, vertical, centralized, homogeneous, controlled. The international sphere is horizontal, decentralized, heterogeneous, uncontrollable, its constituent elements mutually adapt to each other. In a centralized system, decisions are made at the very top, and in the field of international politics - at the very bottom, i.e. at the level of specific states. Formally, they are all equal. None of them has the right to command others and is not obliged to obey others. There is no single government empowered to control or regulate the political activities of all actors. Therefore, the modern international political system is called decentralized, anarchic.

At the national-state level, the power of the state is exercised in the name of law and justice. Opponents of the existing regime are challenging its claims to power, they question its right to rule. At the international level, the power of the state is used for its own protection and benefit. Conflicts and wars between states cannot - at least not always can - resolve issues of power and law, they can only record the scale of losses and gains of the parties involved. At the national level, hierarchical relations of power are established, at the international level, relations of comparative power. At the national level, private power used against government poses a threat to the political system. At the international level, the force used by a particular state against another state does not pose a threat to the system of international politics, although it does pose a threat to individual members of the world community.

The point is that the organizational principles of the domestic political and international political systems differ significantly from each other. Domestic political structures have government institutions and agencies empowered to rule and command. The international political structures do not have such institutions. In this case, formally, all states are equal in relation to each other and no state has the right to command others. There are no relations of hierarchy and subordination, as well as any supranational body competent to make decisions binding on all members of the international community. Of course, there are international organizations. But they are not competent to pass decisions or laws that are binding on all members of the international community.

It is obvious that without a corresponding clarification of the issue of the anatomy and institutional subjects of the political system, there can be no serious conversation about its goals and functions, about the conditions and principles of the distribution and implementation of political power and about many other key problems of political science. From this point of view, the political system is a complex of institutions and organizations that together make up the political self-organization of society. These are, first of all, institutions and bodies of government, leadership and coordination of political life. Often there is an actual identification of the political system and the state, which from a strictly scientific point of view is not entirely legitimate. The allocation of the concept of "political system" is dictated primarily by the fact that it is free from legal and legal meanings associated with the concept of "state". Its conceptual meaning is broader and allows the inclusion of phenomena and processes that are not always identified with the state itself, but nevertheless, there is no political system without the state, and, naturally, it should be the focus of political science research. The struggle between various socio-political forces unfolds primarily for the conquest of state power and levers of state administration. The state, by its very nature, is called upon to ensure the integrity and unity of the various institutions and agencies performing various functions of government.

For example, political parties, the electoral system, the system of representation are unthinkable outside of their connection with the state. If parties and other institutions represent the interests and positions of certain categories and groups of citizens in the political system, then the state expresses the general interest, it is the main instrument for exercising power, the main subject of sovereignty. This, in fact, is the main form of political integration of society in a strictly limited geographic territory, subordinated to a certain type of political domination.

In the state itself, the parliament, government and all executive authorities, administrative apparatus, institutions dealing with the administration of justice. The highest bodies of state power in the person of the head of state and his staff, government, parliament and the judiciary together play the role of a control subsystem, the components of which are interconnected by complex functional relationships. Each of the highest bodies of state power has a real structural and functional certainty established by the constitution, a certain independence in relation to each other. This follows from the very principle of separation of powers into three independent branches: legislative, executive and judicial. In this capacity, each of them acts as an independent subsystem in relation to the general control system.

As already noted, parties and related organizations, associations, unions, and other mechanisms for implementing the political process occupy an important place in the political system. Emphasizing the importance of parties, the German political scientist K. von Baime called modern Western European political systems "party democracies." Often, parties, party and electoral systems are viewed as an independent sphere that exists separately from the political system. G. Almond's position seems to be more justified in this matter. In particular, he distinguished between two levels of political structures: institutional and associative. In this case, the state and its institutions constitute the first, and parties - the second. However, parties play an essential role both in determining the structure of the political system and in its functioning.

It is indicative that a number of researchers evaluate parties as structural elements of political regimes within a particular political system. They largely determine the viability and functioning of the political system. Moreover, in a totalitarian system, the only ruling party organically and inseparably merges with the state, so it is impossible to distinguish the institutional and associative levels here.

Modern political systems are inconceivable without parties and related institutions. It is no coincidence, for example, that the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany fixes the legal and political status of parties, they are recognized as the main political organizations of the state.

In addition to the named basic structural elements, the political system includes various social and political organizations, political action committees, institutions and decision-making mechanisms, such as, for example, corporatism institutions (see about this in the subsequent chapters). In general, the political system covers the institutional and organizational aspect of the political subsystem with its fundamental goals, subjects, relationships, procedures, mechanisms, functions.

THE WORLD COMMUNITY is one of the most used in international politics and at the same time one of the most contradictory and ambiguous concepts in science. In the narrow - political (and state-centrist), as well as legal - sense, the world community is understood as the unification of states into a universal international organization pursuing the common goals of protecting peace and justice for all: in other words, in this case, today they mean the UN and its institutions. In a broad - sociological - sense, it implies both the existence of joint institutions and rules of behavior for all mankind, and the existence of common interests and values, as well as a planetary plague.

A broad interpretation of the world community is characteristic mainly of the British school, communitarianism and other trends in the sociology of international relations. They are based on the concept of international society, which is internally linked to the ideas of order and legitimacy in world politics. M. White and H. Bull defined the international order as the regulation of interstate interactions that creates and maintains certain values \u200b\u200band norms. It contains three main components, which are the primary goals of members of international society. First, the desire of all states for security. Secondly, their interest in ensuring that the agreements that are concluded are implemented. Third, their concern for maintaining their sovereignty.

In general, in the scientific literature related to the sociological direction in the study of international relations, there are three basic assumptions: 1) international society is considered as a fact of international relations; 2) this fact creates obligations on the part of members of the international community; 3) the international society is in the process of transition from the society of states to the society of people (i.e. to the world society) and from the international order to the world one. The latter means that as this transition proceeds, an international public conscience is formed, a sense of community spread throughout the world.

At the same time, as K. Brown emphasizes, the concept of "world community" is never used in a negative sense: it may not be entirely clear what should or what is meant by it, but it is clear that those who use it are sure that the world could would be better if it could be called a community. In other words, this concept is characterized by deep internal contradictions.

Indeed, the concept of "world community" includes both what is proper and what is; contains normative and rational, but at the same time value and emotional aspects. It presupposes pluralism and tolerance in relations between states and, at the same time, the spread throughout the world of values \u200b\u200bthat are Western in origin and cultural basis (market economy, individualism, human rights). Finally, based on the belief in the superiority of liberal principles of good and justice, it acts as the basis for the imposition of these principles through political theories, institutions and actions. As a result, being aimed in its content at achieving stability and just peace, at eliminating the causes of international conflicts, the concept of the world community at the same time contributes to their consolidation and spread. The main problem is: who determines the paths of humanity's movement towards the world community, forms the norms and rules of behavior of its members, sets their living standards? In other words, ultimately the concept of "world community" reflects the struggle between the interests and values \u200b\u200bof the states and peoples of the Earth.

P.A. Tsygankov

Sociological Dictionary / otv. ed. G.V. Osipov, L.N. Moskvichev. M, 2014, p. 429-430.

Literature:

Shakhnazarov G.Kh. The Coming World Order. M., 1981;

Gladkov V.P. Int. about-in: utopia or real perspective // \u200b\u200bMir. economy and international. relations. 1989. No. 6;

Moro Defarge F. Osn. concepts of international. politicians. M., 1995;

Burton N.J.W. World Society. Cambridge, 1972;

Culture, Ideology and World Order / Ed. by R.B.J. Walker. Boulder, 1984;

OnufN.G. World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory of International Relations. Columbia, 1989;

Board E. International Society. L., 1991;

Badie B. L "Etat importe, L" occidentalization de I "ordre Politique. P., 1992.