The meaning of the philosophy of ancient rome. The essence of ancient Roman philosophy. Titus Lucretius Kar

From the beginning of the III century BC. e. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increasing, which, from an urban republic, becomes a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part of the ancient world. The cities of mainland Greece also fall under his economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture into Rome begins, of which philosophy was an integral part. Roman culture and education developed in completely different conditions than those that were several centuries earlier in Greece. The Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of \u200b\u200bmature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other, on the territory of "barbarian" tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. The natural and technical sciences developed successfully, political and legal sciences are reaching an unprecedented scale. Therefore, it is that Roman philosophy is also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. A definite impetus for the expansion of Greek philosophy in Rome was the visit of its Athenian ambassadors, among whom were the most prominent representatives of the Greek philosophical schools that existed at that time (mid-2nd century BC).

From about this time, three philosophical trends developed in Rome, which were already formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

Stoicism. Stoicism was most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. Sometimes it is considered the only philosophical movement that acquired a new meaning in the Roman period. Its beginnings can be seen already in the influence of Diogenes from Seleucia and An-typatra from Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the aforementioned Athenian embassy). A notable role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the middle stance - Panethius of Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit is that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among the students of Panethius were such outstanding personalities of ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero. Panethius, in the main provisions of his doctrine, largely adhered to the old stoicism. So, he meets the concept of logos, similar to the concept, for example, of Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he brought the ideal of the Stoic sage somewhat closer to practical life.

The further development of Roman Stoicism was greatly influenced by Posidonius. In the field of ontology, he develops the main philosophical problems of the teachings of Aristotle, as well as issues bordering on natural science and cosmology. He combines the original philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This reflects a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)

The most prominent representatives of Roman Stoicism (new sta) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD) came from the class of "horsemen" 28, received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, for a relatively long period he successfully practiced law. Later he becomes the educator of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social position and honors. In the second year of Nero's rule, he dedicates to him the treatise "On Mercy", in which he urges Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.

As prestige and wealth grows, Seneca comes into conflict with his environment. After a fire in 64 AD. e. hatred of Seneca in Rome is growing. He leaves town and lives on his nearby estate. Charged with plotting a conspiracy, he was forced to commit suicide.

Seneca's legacy is vast. His most outstanding works include Letters to Lucilius, Discourse on Providence, On the Resilience of a Philosopher, On Anger, On a Happy Life, On Free Time, On Virtue, etc. For with the exception of Questions of Nature, all of his works are devoted to ethical issues. If the old standing believed physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new standing considers it to be a completely subordinate domain.

In views on nature (as well as in other parts of his work), Seneca, however, in principle adheres to the teachings of the old stop. This is manifested, for example, in the materialistically oriented dualism of matter and form. Mind is considered to be an active principle that imparts form to matter. In this case, the primacy of matter is unambiguously recognized. He also understands the soul (pneuma) in the spirit of the old stoicism, as a very subtle matter, a mixture of the elements of fire and air.

In epistemology, Seneca, like other representatives of Stoicism, is a supporter of ancient sensationalism. He emphasizes that the mind has its origin in feelings. When deciding on the activity of the soul, he, however, accepts some elements of Platonic philosophy, which is manifested primarily in the recognition of the immortality of the soul and the characterization of corporeality as the "fetters" of the soul.

Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his concept of God as an immanent, ruling force that rules over reason (logos). Seneca characterizes it as "the highest good and the highest wisdom", which is realized in the harmony of the world and its purposeful structure.

Unlike the old stand Seneca (as well as all Roman Stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The principle of harmony with nature (to live happily means to live in accordance with nature) and the principle of human subordination to fate are distinguished as the main ones. The question of how to live life is the subject of his treatises "On the brevity of life" and "On a happy life." They are projected as personal experience Seneca and the social relations of the then Rome. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of republican virtues during the era of imperial rule lead him to significant doubts about the future. “Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one in which we live is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one that We have lived is definite. Only it is stable, fate does not affect it, but no one can return it either ”29. Seneca rejects the desire for the accumulation of property, for secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascended, the closer he is to fall. Very poor and very short is the life of the person who, with great efforts, acquires what with even greater efforts he must keep ”30. However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential people in Rome. When his enemies pointed to the fact that his own life is very different from the ideals that he proclaims, he answered them in his treatise On a Happy Life: “... all philosophers talk not about how they live themselves, but about how how one should live.

I speak about virtue, but not about myself and I am fighting against sins, which means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should ”31.

Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is overcoming the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this problem in his writings. In ethics, he continues the line of the old stand, emphasizing the concept of man as an individual striving for improvement in virtues.

A life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming part of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activities, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “Better to seek shelter in a quiet dock than to be voluntarily tossed back and forth all my life. Think how many shocks of waves you have already been subjected to, how many storms swept through your private life, how many of them you unconsciously caused upon yourself in public life! I do not mean that you drown your days in sleep and pleasure. I don't call this a fulfilling life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those you have been doing so far, and believe that it is more important to know the account of your own life than the common good that you have been concerned about until now! If you live like this, communication with wise men awaits you, wonderful art, love and the accomplishment of good; the awareness of how good it is to live and one day to die well. ”32 His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.

Another prominent representative of Roman Stoicism, Epictetus (50-138), was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views, there is a lot from the old stand, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He himself did not leave any work. His thoughts were recorded by his disciple Arrian from Nicomedia in the treatises "The Reasoning of Epictetus" and "The Manual of Epictetus". Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life, He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly consists in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.

In his ontological concepts and views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek Stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of Epictetus' philosophy is ethics, based on a stoic understanding of virtue and life in accordance with the general nature of the world.

The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because on its basis it is possible to change nature (the surrounding world), but because in accordance with nature, a person could order his life. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and that what is alien is yours ”33. And since it is not within the power of man to change the objective world, society is beyond the power of man, one should not strive for this.

Epictetus criticizes and condemns the then public order. He emphasizes thoughts about the equality of people, condemns slavery. This is how his views differ from the Stoic doctrine. The central motive of his philosophy - resignation to a given reality - leads, however, to passivity. “Do not want everything to happen as you want, but wish that everything happens as it happens, and you will be happy in life” 34.

Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, man participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, one should not worry about welfare, convenience, and in general about bodily pleasures, but only about your soul.

Just as reason rules over man, so the world mind rules - logos (God). He is the source and determining factor in the development of the world. Things, as a controlled god, should obey him. Freedom and independence, to which he attached great importance, Epictetus limits only spiritual freedom, freedom of humility with reality.

Epictetus' ethics is essentially rationalistic. And although it is expressively marked by subjectivism, it nevertheless protects (in contrast to the irrationalist currents that were forming at that time) the power of the human mind.

In essence, the entire philosophy of Epictetus is an expression of the passive protest of the lower social classes against the existing social order. This protest, however, finds no real way out. Therefore, it translates into a call to come to terms with the existing state of affairs.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign the crisis phenomena became even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics, they see a certain means of moral revival of society. The emperor in his reflections "To himself" proclaims that "the only thing that is in the power of man are his thoughts." “Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of good, which is able to beat without running out, if you constantly dig up to it. " He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: "A calm thought with everything that comes from the outside, and justice with everything," that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them consist in generally useful actions, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature. "

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient stoicism, and in fact this is where stoicism ends. Certain traces of mysticism appear in his work, which is closely associated with the decline of Roman society. The Stoic doctrine, in particular the emphasis on the need to "subordinate oneself" (to the world mind - logos - to God), largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.

Epicureanism. The only materialistic (for its time, clearly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was Epicureanism, which spread significantly in last years Roman Republic and early imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Kar (c. 95-55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem "On Nature", which is also a valuable work of fiction in the literature of that time.

Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; he considered the latter the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, while giving at the same time the most integral and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only existence.

Matter is, first of all, the primary bodies of things, and secondly, everything that is the totality of the named elements. Not a single force, however, can destroy atoms, they always win with their impenetrability. The first is deeply different, those two things have a double character, as it was said above, matter and space, everything happens in it; they are necessary in themselves and are pure. Wherever emptiness, so-called space, stretches, there is no mother; and tai, where matter has spread, there is no emptiness and space in any way. The first bodies are complete without emptiness. Secondly, in the things that have arisen, emptiness exists, and next to it is whole matter.

In this form, Lucretius expounds the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the inability to create matter as such.

If the first bodies, solid and without cavities, as I have already said, they are undoubtedly eternal. Infinity of matter in space is also connected with the indestructibility and non-creation of matter, that is, with its infinity in time.

The universe itself cannot limit itself; truth is the law of nature; he wants the boundaries of matter to be formed by emptiness, and matter - by the boundaries of emptiness, the merit of this alternation is the universe without end 39.

Atoms, according to Lucretius, movement is inherent. In deciding the question of movement, he stands on the principles of Epicurus. He tries to substantiate in a certain way deviations from the rectilinear motion of atoms.

What you should know about motion is this: if atoms fall vertically in space due to their own weight, here at an indefinite place and indefinitely they deviate from the path - only so much that the direction is slightly different. If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into the depths of emptiness, down like raindrops, elements could not collide and combine, and nature would never create anything 40.

It follows from this that the Epicurean parenclitic movement for Lucretius is the source of particles. Together with the size and shape of atoms, it is the cause of the diversity and variety of things in the world.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

From what matter the spirit and what it consists of, my words will soon be listed to you. First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle; the bodies that form it are extremely small. This helps to understand and you yourself will understand that: nothing happens in the world as quickly as what the thought itself represents and forms. From this it is evident that the spirit has the greatest speed than anything that is accessible to the eye; but what is also movable, it is true that it consists of completely round and smallest bodies 41.

In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.

In Lucretius' understanding of atomistic theory, one can already find the outline of evolutionism. He held the view that everything organic arose from inorganic and that complex organic species developed from protozoa.

Lucretius tries to explain in a natural way the emergence of society. He says that originally people lived in a "semi-wild state", without knowing fire and dwelling. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into a society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the causes of the emergence and development of human society. His striving for a "natural" explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, in comparison with the then idealistic approach, significant progress. Just like Epicurus, he believed that society, social organization (law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement of people (theory of contract): Neighbors then began to unite in friendship, No longer wishing to mend lawlessness and enmity, and children and women the floor was taken under guard, showing with gestures and awkward sounds that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although agreement could not be universally recognized, the best and most part of the contract was faithful to fulfill 42.

The materialism of Lucretius also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes all belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of \u200b\u200blife after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes. In particular, he points to the epistemological origins of the emergence of religious ideas (the disclosure of the social roots of religion was, of course, impossible in his time).

In the field of ethics, Lucretius consistently defends the Epicurean principles of a calm and happy life. Knowledge is the means to happiness. For a person to live happily, he must free himself from fear, in particular from the fear of the gods. He defended these views both from stoic and skeptical criticism, and from their vulgarization in the understanding of some Epicurean supporters from the highest circles of society.

The influence and dissemination of the consistently materialistic and logically integral philosophical system of Lucretius was undoubtedly facilitated by the artistic form of presentation. The poem "On Nature" belongs not only to the heights of Roman philosophical thinking, but also to the highly artistic works of its period.

Epicureanism in Roman society was retained for a relatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical directions... However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity becomes the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Kara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Roman Epicureanism, in particular the work of Lucretius Cara, marked the pinnacle of materialistic tendencies in Roman philosophy. He became an intermediary link between the materialism of the ancient Greek Stoics and the materialistic trends of modern philosophy.

Skepticism. Another significant philosophical direction of ancient Rome was skepticism. Its main representative Enesidemus of Knossos (c. 1st century BC) is close in his views to the philosophy of Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Enesidem's thoughts is evidenced by the fact that he devoted his main work to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho ("Eight books of Pyrrhic discourses").

Enesidem saw skepticism as a way to overcome the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion from his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on immediate sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he is served by the formulations of the so-called tropes, which have already been mentioned.

The next five tropes, which were added by the successor of Enesidemus Agrippa, further strengthened doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical trends.

The most prominent representative of the so-called minor skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - "Foundations of Pyrrhonism". In other works - "Against the dogmatists", "Against mathematicians" - he expounds the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism.

In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that does not allow confusion with other philosophical trends. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical currents, each of which recognizes some essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of value, on the whole it is already a philosophy that has lost the spiritual power that lifted ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.

Eclecticism. Eclecticism in Rome is much more widespread and significant than in Hellenistic Greece. Its supporters include a number of prominent personalities of the Roman political and cultural life both in the last years of the Roman Republic and in the first period of the empire. The most famous among them was the eminent politician and orator Marcus Thulius Cicero (106-45 BC), the creator of Latin philosophical terminology.

Representatives of Roman eclecticism possessed an enormous amount of knowledge. In some cases, they were true encyclopedists of their era. Their combination of various philosophical schools was not accidental and unreasonable, a certain conceptual approach was strengthened precisely by a deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual convergence of theory with the field of ethics expressed the general situation in philosophy.

Eclecticism, developing on the basis of academic philosophy, reaches the boundaries of encyclopedism, embracing the knowledge of both nature and society. Cicero belonged, perhaps, to the most significant branch of Roman eclecticism, which developed on the basis of Stoic philosophy.

"Stoic" eclecticism in the presentation of Cicero focuses on social issues, and in particular on ethics. His motive was the combination of those parts of different philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

Cicero's social views reflect his position as a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the republican period. He sees the best social order in a combination of three main state forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to provide citizens with security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his real political activities.

In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics, pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue set forth by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being who has something divine in him. Virtue calls overcoming all adversities in life by willpower. Philosophy in this matter provides a person with invaluable services. Each of the philosophical directions comes to the achievement of virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends to "combine" everything that is the contribution of individual schools of thought, all their achievements into one whole. By this, in fact, he defends his eclecticism.

Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the early years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Mistrust in the rational development of the world, to a greater or lesser extent manifested in various philosophical directions, together with the increasing influence of Christianity, more and more strengthened the multiplying signs of mysticism. The irrational movements of this era tried in various ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, of which Apollonius of Tiana was a typical representative, tried to strengthen itself by returning to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC - 50 AD) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism appears in a concentrated form.

More interesting was Neoplatonism, which developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism takes shape in the same social setting as Christianity. Like the rest of the irrationalist philosophical trends of late antiquity, neo-Platonism, to a certain extent, is a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of social despair and the progressive decay of social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270) 43.

Plotinus believed that the basis of all that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, over-rational divine principle. All forms of being depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says about it that it is unknowable. “This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of him, but is precisely his very identity.” 44 This only true being is comprehensible only by penetrating into the very center of pure contemplation and pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the “rejection” of thought - ecstasy (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, was created so that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existence from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation is the divine principle, then - the divine soul, and below all - nature.

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that the divine principle of Plotinus is an absolutization and a certain deformation of the world of Plato's ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. She is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them. This understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views of not only the Epicureans, but also the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus' ideas, the soul is not organically connected with the body. She is part of the common soul. The bodily is the bond of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. "Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the bodily, sensual and is not interested in explaining its existence, but only wants to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage." The emphasis on "spiritual" (good) leads him to the complete suppression of all bodily and material (evil). This translates into the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks of the material and sensible world, he characterizes it as inauthentic being, as non-existent, “having in itself a certain image of being” 46. By its nature, inauthentic being has no form, properties or any signs. This solution to the basic philosophical problematics in Plotinus marks his ethics. The principle of goodness is connected with the only truly existing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensible world. From these positions, Plotinus proceeds to the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, that is, the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory knowledge; it is also not cognizable in a rational way. The only way to approach the divine principle Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.

Philosophy Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions 47, which become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.

Porfiry (c. 232-304) became a direct student of Plotinus and the continuer of his teachings. He showed great attention to the study of the works of Plotinus, published and commented on them, compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfnrius was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his "Introduction to the categories of Aristotle", which marked the beginning of the dispute about the real existence of the common.

The mystical teaching of Plotinus is continued by two other neoplatonic schools. One of them is the Syrian school, the founder and most prominent representative of which was Iamblichus (late 3rd - early 4th centuries A.D.). From the surviving part of his great creative heritage, one can judge that in addition to the traditional range of problems of neo-Platonic philosophy, he was also occupied with other problems, such as mathematics, astronomy, music theory, etc.

In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, mind and soul. Among these Plotinovsky essences, he distinguishes others, transitional.

Also noteworthy is his attempt to substantiate ancient polytheism in the spirit of Plotinus' philosophy. Simultaneously with the divine principle as the only truly existing, he recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then there are 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is, in fact, a mystical-speculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.

Another school of Neoplatonism - Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412-485). His work in a certain sense is the completion and systematization of neo-Platonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition to this he publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.

It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and presentation of the principle of the dialectical triad 48, in which he distinguishes three main points of development: 1. The content of the created in the creator. 2. Separation of the already created from the creator. 3. Return of the created to the creator. The conceptual dialectic of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its peak in this concept. Both neo-Platonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus' mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything bodily, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant impact not only on early Christian philosophy, but also on medieval theological thinking. We have traced the emergence and development of ancient philosophy. For the first time practically all the main philosophical problems crystallized in it, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed, and, although not explicitly, the problem was posed, which Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which in many respects influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. Lenin stated that the history of philosophy has always been an arena for the struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The immediacy and, in a sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical, thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to understand and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, worldview clashes and struggles are projected. The initial unity of philosophy and the expanding special scientific knowledge, their systemic allocation explain very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (special) sciences. Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society, it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

ROMAN PHILOSOPHY

From the beginning of the III century BC. e. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increasing, which, from an urban republic, becomes a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part of the ancient world. The cities of mainland Greece also fall under his economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture begins in Rome, of which philosophy was an integral part. Roman culture and education developed in completely different conditions than those that were several centuries earlier in Greece. The Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of \u200b\u200bmature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other, on the territory of "barbarian" tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. Natural and technical sciences developed successfully, political and legal sciences were reaching unprecedented proportions.

Roman culture is characterized by the desire to enrich itself with the best of what is faced by Rome, striving for world domination. It is therefore logical that Roman philosophy is also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking.A definite impulse for the expansion of Greek philosophy in Rome was the visit of its Athenian ambassadors, among whom were the most prominent representatives of the Greek schools of thought that existed at that time (middle 2nd century BC).

From about this time, three philosophical trends developed in Rome, which were already formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

Stoicism. Stoicism was most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. Sometimes it is considered the only philosophical movement that took on a new meaning in the Roman period. Its beginnings can be seen already in the influence of Diogenes of Seleucia and Antipater of Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the aforementioned Athenian embassy). A notable role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the middle stance Panethius from Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit is that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among the students of Panethius were such outstanding personalities of ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero.

Panethius, in the main provisions of his teaching, largely adhered to the old stoicism. So, he meets the concept of logos, similar to the concept, for example, in Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he brought the ideal of the Stoic sage somewhat closer to practical life.

The further development of Roman Stoicism was greatly influenced by Posidonius. In the field of ontology, he develops the main philosophical problems of Aristotle's teachings, as well as issues bordering on natural science and cosmology. He combines the initial philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This reflects a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)

The most prominent representative of Roman Stoicism ( new stand) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca (approx. 4 BC-65 AD) came from the class of "horsemen", received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, a relatively long period of successfully practicing law. Later he becomes the educator of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social position and honors. In the second year of Nero's rule, he dedicates to him the treatise "On Mercy", in which he urges Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.

Seneca's legacy is vast. His most outstanding works include Letters to Lucilius, Discourse on Providence, On the Resilience of a Philosopher, On Anger, On a Happy Life, On Free Time, On Virtue, etc. For with the exception of "Questions of Nature" ("Quastiones naturales"), all his works are devoted to ethical issues. If the old standing believed physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new standing considers it to be a completely subordinate domain.

Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his concept of God as an immanent, ruling force that dominates reason (logos). Seneca characterizes it as "the highest good and the highest wisdom", which is realized in the harmony of the world and its purposeful structure.

Unlike the old stand Seneca (as well as all Roman Stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The principle of harmony with nature (to live happily means living in accordance with nature) and the principle of human subordination to fate are distinguished as the main ones. The question of how to live life is the subject of his treatises "On the brevity of life" and "On a happy life." They project both the personal experience of Seneca and the public relations of the then Rome. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of republican virtues during the era of imperial rule lead him to significant doubts about the future. “Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one in which we live is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one that we have lived is certain. Only he is stable, fate does not affect him, but no one can return him either. " Seneca rejects the desire for the accumulation of property, for secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascends, the closer he is to the fall. Very poor and very short is the life of the person who, with great efforts, acquires what he must hold with even greater efforts. " However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential people in Rome. When his enemies pointed to the fact that his own life is very different from the ideals that he proclaims, he answered them in his treatise On a Happy Life: “... all philosophers talk not about how they live themselves, but about how must live. I talk about virtue, but not about myself, and I am fighting against sins, which means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should. "

A life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming majority of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activity, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “Better to seek shelter in a quiet dock than to be voluntarily tossed back and forth all my life. Think how many shocks of waves you have already been subjected to, how many storms swept through your private life, how many of them you unconsciously caused upon yourself in public life! I do not mean that you drown your days in sleep and pleasure. I don't call this a fulfilling life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those you have been doing so far, and believe that it is more important to know the account of your own life than the common good that you have been thinking about until now! If you live like this, communication with wise men awaits you, wonderful art, love and the accomplishment of good;

awareness of how good it is to live and one day it is good to die. " His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.

Another prominent representative of Roman Stoicism, Epictetus (50-138), was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views there is a lot from the old stop, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He himself did not leave any work. His thoughts were recorded by his student Arrian of Nicomedia in the treatises "The Reasoning of Epictetus" and "The Manual of Epictetus". Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life. He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly lies in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.

In his ontological ideas and in his views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek Stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of Epictetus' philosophy is ethics based on a stoic understanding of virtue and life in accordance with the general nature of the world.

The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because on its basis it is possible to change nature (the surrounding world), but because, in accordance with nature, a person can order his life. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If if you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and that that is alien is yours. " And since it is not within the power of man to change the objective world, society cannot, and one should not strive for this.

Epictetus criticizes and condemns the then public order. He emphasizes the idea of \u200b\u200bthe equality of people, condemns slavery. This is how his views differ from the Stoic doctrine. The central motive of his philosophy - resignation to a given reality - leads, however, to passivity. "Do not want everything to happen as you want, but wish that everything happens as it happens, and it will be good for you in life."

Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, man participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, you should not worry about well-being, comfort, and in general about bodily pleasures, but only about your soul.

Just as reason rules over man, so the world mind rules - logos (God). He is the source and determining factor in the development of the world. Things, as a controlled god, should obey him. Freedom and independence, which he attached great importance to. Epictetus limits only to spiritual freedom, freedom of humility with reality.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign the crisis phenomena became even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics, they see a certain means of moral revival of society. The Emperor in his reflections "To himself" proclaims that "the only thing that is in the power of man are his thoughts." “Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of good, which is able to beat without running out, if you constantly dig up to it. " He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: "A calm thought with everything that comes from the outside, and justice with everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them consist in actions that are generally useful, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature."

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism, and in fact this is where Stoicism ends. Certain traces of mysticism appear in his work, which is closely related to the decline of Roman society. Stoic doctrine, in particular, the emphasis on the need to "subordinate oneself" (to the world mind - logos - to God) largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.

Epicureanism The only materialistic (for its time, clearly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was epicureanism, which spread significantly in the last years of the Roman Republic and at the beginning of the imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Kar (c. 95–55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem On Nature, which is also a valuable work of fiction of the literature of that time.

Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; he considered the latter the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, while simultaneously giving the most integral and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. The only existence Lucretius considers atoms, and emptiness.

Matter, first of all, is the primary bodies of things,

secondly, everything that is a collection of the named elements.

No force, however, can destroy atoms,

they always win with their impenetrability.

The first is deeply different, double character

have those two things as stated above,

matter and space, everything happens in it;

they are necessary in themselves and are pure.

Where is the void, the so-called space,

there is no matter; and where matter has spread,

there is no emptiness and space in any way.

The first bodies are complete without emptiness.

Secondly, in the things that have arisen, emptiness exists,

next to it is solid matter.

In this form, Lucretius expounds the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the inability to create matter as such.

If the first bodies are solid

and without cavities, as I already said,

they are undoubtedly eternal.

Infinity of matter in space is also connected with the indestructibility and inconceivability of matter, that is, with its infinity in time.

The universe itself cannot limit itself;

truth is the law of nature; he desires the boundaries of matter

formed emptiness, and matter - the boundaries of emptiness,

the merit of this alternation is the endless universe.

Here's what you should know about movement:

if atoms fall vertically in space due to

its own weight, here in an undefined place

and they vaguely deviate from the path

just enough that the direction is slightly different.

If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into

the depths of emptiness, down like raindrops,

elements could not collide and connect,

and nature would never create anything.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

What matter is the spirit and what does it consist of,

soon my words will be enumerated to you.

First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle;

the bodies that form it are extremely small.

This helps to understand and you yourself will understand that:

nothing happens so fast in the world

as what the thought itself represents and forms.

This shows that the spirit has the greatest speed,

than everything that is accessible to the eye;

but what is also movable, it must be composed of bodies

perfectly round and smallest.

In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.

Lucretius tries to explain in a natural way the emergence of society. He says that originally people lived in a "semi-wild state", without knowing fire and home. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into a society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the causes of the emergence and development of human society. His striving for a "natural" explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, in comparison with the then idealistic approach, significant progress. Just like Epicurus, he believed that society, social organization (law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement of people (contract theory):

The neighbors then began to unite in friendship,

No longer wishing to repair lawlessness and enmity,

and the children and the female were taken under guard,

showing with gestures and awkward sounds,

that all should have sympathy for the weak.

Although consent could not be universally recognized,

the best and most part of the contract sacredly fulfilled.

Epicureanism in Roman society was retained for a relatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical trends. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity becomes the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

The next five tropes, which were added by the successor of Enesidemus Agrippa, further strengthened doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical trends.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of money, on the whole, it is already a philosophy that has lost that spiritual strength that lifted ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.

Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the early years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Mistrust in the rational development of the world, to a greater or lesser extent manifested in various philosophical directions, together with the increasing influence of Christianity, more and more strengthened the multiplying signs of mysticism. The irrational movements of this era tried in various ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, of which Apollonius of Tkana was a typical representative, tried to strengthen itself by returning to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC - 50 AD) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism appears in a concentrated form.

More interesting was neo-Platonism, which developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e .; in the last century of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism takes shape in the same social setting as Christianity. Like the rest of the irrationalist philosophical trends of late antiquity, neoplatonism, to a certain extent, is a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of social despair and the progressive decomposition of social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175–242), and the most prominent representative of Plotinus (205–270).

Plotinus believed that the basis of all that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, overmind divine principle. All forms of being depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says about it that it is unknowable. "This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of him, but is precisely his very identity." This only true being is comprehensible only through penetration into the very center of pure contemplation to pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the "rejection" of thought-ecstasy (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, was created so that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existence from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the tops of this gradation is the divine principle, then - the divine soul, and below all - nature.

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that the divine principle of Plotinus is an absolutization and a certain deformation of the world of Plato's ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. She is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them. This understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views of not only the Epicureans, but also the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus' ideas, the soul is not organically connected with the body. She is part of the common soul. The bodily is the bond of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. "Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the bodily, sensual and is not interested in explaining its existence, but only wants to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage." The emphasis on "spiritual" (good) leads him to the complete suppression of all bodily and material (evil). This translates into the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks about the material and sensible world, he characterizes it as inauthentic being, as non-existent, “having in itself a certain image of being”. By its nature, inauthentic existence has no form, properties, or any signs. This solution to the basic philosophical problematics in Plotinus marks his ethics. The principle of goodness is connected with the only truly existing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensible world. From these positions, Plotinus proceeds to the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, that is, the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory knowledge; it is also not cognizable in a rational way. The only way to approach the divine principle Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.

The philosophy of Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions, which become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.

Porfiry (c. 232-304) became a direct disciple of Plotinus and the continuer of his teachings. He showed great attention to the study of the works of Plotinus, published and commented on them, compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfiry was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his "Introduction to the categories of Aristotle", which initiated a dispute about the real existence of the common.

In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, mind and soul. Among these Plotinovsky essences, he distinguishes others, transitional.

Also noteworthy is his attempt to substantiate ancient polytheism in the spirit of Plotinus' philosophy. Simultaneously with the divine principle as the only truly existing, he recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then there are 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is essentially a mystical-speculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.

Another school of Neoplatonism - Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412–485). His work in a certain sense is the completion and systematization of neo-Platonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition to this he publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.

It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and presentation of the principle of the dialectical triad, in which he distinguishes three main points of development:

2. Separation of the already created from the creator.

3. Return of the created to the creator.

The conceptual dialectic of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its peak in this concept.

Both neo-Platonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus' mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything bodily, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant impact not only on early Christian philosophy, but also on medieval theological thinking.

We have traced the emergence and development of ancient philosophy. For the first time practically all the main philosophical problems crystallized in it, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed, and, although not explicitly, the problem was posed, which Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which in many respects influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. Lenin stated that the history of philosophy has always been an arena for the struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The immediacy and, in a sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical, thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to understand and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, worldview clashes and struggles are projected.

The initial unity of philosophy and the expanding special scientific knowledge, their systemic allocation explain very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (special) sciences.

Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society, it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

This text is an introductory fragment.

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PHILOSOPHY OF NEW TIME AND THE AGE OF EDUCATION, GERMAN CLASSICAL

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in philosophy

on the topic: "Philosophy of Ancient Rome"

Completed by a student

Pirogova O.V.

scientific adviser

Shemyakina E.M.

Moscow 2012

Introduction

After the subordination of Greece to Rome in the II century. BC e. The Roman Empire began to adopt philosophical teachings that appeared in ancient Greece during the era of the collapse of the Athenian state. Unlike Greek philosophy, Roman philosophy was predominantly ethical. The main task Roman philosophy is not a study of the essence of things, but the problem of achieving the highest good, happiness, the development of rules for life.

This paper will examine some of the main philosophical trends that established in Rome, such as Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism, as well as their prominent representatives - Lucius Anneus Seneca, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Titus Lucretius Carus and Enesidemus.

1. Stoicism

stoicism skepticism rome philosophy

Stoicism is the teaching of one of the most influential philosophical schools of antiquity, founded around 300 BC. Zeno from China; its name comes from the "Painted Portico" - "Stoi" in Athens, where Zeno taught. The history of Stoicism is traditionally divided into three periods: Early (Zeno III-II centuries BC), Middle (Panethius, Posidonius, Hecaton II-I centuries BC) and Late (or Roman) Stoicism (Seneca , Marcus Aurelius I-II centuries AD).

Stoic doctrine is usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics. Their comparison of philosophy with an orchard is known: logic corresponds to the fence that protects it, physics is a growing tree, and ethics is fruit.

Logics - the fundamental part of stoicism; its task is to substantiate the necessary and universal laws of reason as the laws of cognition, being, and philosophizing as a strict "scientific" procedure.

Physics... The Stoics represent the world as a living organism. According to stoicism, everything that exists is bodily, and differs only in the degree of "coarseness" or "subtlety" of matter. Strength is the subtlest matter. The power that controls the world as a whole is God. All matter is only a change of this divine power. Things and events repeat after each periodic ignition and purification of space.

Ethics... All people are citizens of space as a world state; Stoic cosmopolitanism equalized all people in the face of the world law: free and slaves, citizens and barbarians, men and women. According to the Stoics, any moral action is self-preservation and self-affirmation and increases the common good. All sins and immoral acts are self-destruction, the loss of one's own human nature. Correct desires, actions and deeds are a guarantee of human happiness, for this you need to develop your personality in every possible way, not be submissive to fate, not bow to any force.

Lucius Anney Seneca (5 BC - 65 AD)

Seneca was a native of Cordoba, he attached great importance to the practical side of philosophy, ethics and researched the question of how to live a virtuous life, without delving into the theoretical study of the nature of virtue. He sees philosophy as a means of acquiring virtue. "Let our words bring not pleasure, but benefit - the patient is looking for the wrong doctor who speaks eloquently."

In his theoretical views, Seneca adhered to the materialism of the ancient Stoics, but in practice he believed in the transcendence of God. He believed that fate is not a blind element. She has a mind, a particle of which is present in every person. Any misfortune is a reason for virtuous self-improvement. The philosopher suggests striving for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrendering to the will of the laws of nature.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 BC - 180 BC)

Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD e., in his reflections "To himself" says that "the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts." “Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of good, which is able to beat without running out, if you constantly dig up to it. " He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: "A calm thought with everything that comes from the outside, and justice with everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them consist in actions that are generally useful, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature."

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient stoicism.

2. Epicureanism

Epicureanism was the only materialistic philosophy in ancient Rome. The materialistic direction in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy was named after its founder Epicurus. At the end of the 2nd century. BC e. there are followers of Epicurus among the Romans, the most prominent of whom was Titus Lucretius Carus.

Titus Lucretius Carus (95 BC - 55 BC)

Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Epicurus. In his work "On the Nature of Things", he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, while giving at the same time the most integral and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only existence. Where there is emptiness, the so-called space, there is no matter; and where matter has spread, there is no emptiness and space in any way.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

Epicureanism in Roman society was retained for a relatively long time. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity became the official state religion, a stubborn and merciless struggle began against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

3. Skepticism

Skepticism is based on a position based on doubt about the existence of any reliable criterion of truth. Skepticism is contradictory in nature, it encouraged some to an in-depth search for truth, and others to militant ignorance and amoralism. The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC).

Pyrrho and his philosophical views

According to the teachings of Pyrrho, a philosopher is a person who strives for happiness. It, in his opinion, consists only in calmness, combined with the absence of suffering.

Anyone who wants to achieve happiness must answer three questions: 1) what are things made of; 2) how to treat them; 3) what benefit we are able to get from our attitude towards them.

Pyrrho believed that no answer could be given to the first question, nor could it be argued that something definite exists. Moreover, any statement about any subject can be opposed with equal right by a statement contradicting it.

From the recognition of the impossibility of unambiguous statements about things, Pyrrho deduced the answer to the second question: the philosophical attitude to things consists in refraining from any judgments. This answer also predetermines the answer to the third question: the benefits and benefits arising from abstaining from all kinds of judgments are equanimity or serenity. This state, called ataraxia, based on the rejection of knowledge, is viewed by skeptics as the highest degree of bliss.

The efforts of Pyrrho, aimed at shackling human curiosity with doubt and slowing down the movement along the path of progressive development of knowledge, were in vain. The future, which was presented to skeptics as a terrible punishment for believing in the omnipotence of knowledge, nevertheless came, and none of its warnings could stop it.

4. Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism developed in the 3rd - 5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism takes shape in the same social setting as Christianity. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270).

Plotinus and his philosophical views

Plotinus believed that the basis of all that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, overmind divine principle. All forms of being depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says about it that it is unknowable. This only true being is comprehensible only through penetration into the very center of pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the "rejection" of thought - ecstasy. Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being.

Nature, according to Plotinus, was created so that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existence from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation is the divine principle, then - the divine soul, and below all - nature.

Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. She is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them.

Conclusion

In general, the philosophy of Ancient Rome had a huge impact on subsequent philosophical thought, culture, and the development of human civilization. The philosophy of ancient Rome contained the beginnings of the main types of philosophical worldview, which were developed in all subsequent centuries. Many of the problems that ancient philosophers pondered over have not lost their relevance to this day. The study of ancient philosophy provides us not only with valuable information about the results of the reflections of outstanding thinkers, but also contributes to the development of more sophisticated philosophical thinking.

List of references

1. F. Copleston “History of Philosophy. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. T. I. ": Centerpolygraph; Moscow; 2003

2. F. Copleston “History of Philosophy. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. T. II. ": Centerpolygraph; Moscow; 2003

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- (from the Greek phileo I love, sophia wisdom, philosophia love of wisdom) a special form of social consciousness and knowledge of the world, which develops a system of knowledge about the fundamental principles and foundations of human existence, about the most general essential ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

The section of philosophy that gives philosophy. interpretation of the historical process. Elements of Philosophy. comprehension of history contained in antiquity. Philos. and historiographic works. In the Middle Ages philos. the study of history was not separated in any way clearly from ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Philos. study of the principles and general laws of culture. It can exist as a special theory or as an aspect of a broader concept. From F. to. cultural studies should be distinguished as a special humanitarian science that does not require ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

PHILOSOPHY OF CULTURE, a philosophical study of the principles and general laws of culture (see. CULTURE). Cultural studies should be distinguished from the philosophy of culture (see CULTUROLOGY) as a special humanitarian science. Prehistory of the philosophy of culture ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

I. The era of the republic 1. The most ancient period. 2. Literature III II centuries. BC e. 3. Literature of the period of civil wars. II. The era of transition to the empire ("Age of Augustus"). III. The era of the empire. Bibliography. I. THE ERA OF THE REPUBLIC. 1. ANCIENT PERIOD. ... ... Literary encyclopedia

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Novosibirsk State Technical University

"Philosophers of Ancient Rome and their role in the history of world culture"

Novosibirsk

Introduction

1. Roman Stoicism

1.1 Seneca

1.2 Epictetus

1.3 Marcus Aurelius

2. Roman Epicureanism

2.1 Titus Lucretius Carus

3. Roman skepticism

3.1 Enesidem

3.1 Sextus Empiricus

4. Roman eclecticism

4.1 Mark Thulius Cicero

Conclusion

Introduction

Philosophy is a special form of cognition that seeks to develop a system of knowledge about the fundamental principles of reality, about the relationship between man and the world.

In the field of philosophy, Rome developed the ideas of the main Greek philosophical schools and significantly contributed to the popularization of the philosophical thought of the Greeks. Despite the similarities and successive nature of Roman philosophical thought, it differed from Greek. The reason for this is a radically different paradigm of values \u200b\u200bthat arose in Roman society, the main pillars of which are: patriotism, honor, dignity, loyalty to civic duty and the unique idea of \u200b\u200bGod's chosen people (which later became a distinctive feature of all empires). The Romans did not share the Greek glorification of a free individual who violates the established laws of society. On the contrary, they in every possible way elevated the role and value of the law, the immutability of its observance and respect. For them, the public interests were above the interests of the individual, perhaps that is why the Romans were interested not so much in theoretical research and the search for new knowledge, as in the generalization, systematization and practical application of already accumulated knowledge.

In Rome, three schools of thought developed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism. Eclecticism was widespread - the unification of the teachings of different philosophical schools.

1. Roman Stoicism

Stoicism is (if very brief and generalized) a philosophical doctrine (first formulated by the Greek philosopher Zenon of Kitiysky) asserting the corporeality of the world as a living organism, its organic connection with the cosmos and the equality of all people as citizens of the cosmos. In its ethical standards, Stoicism requires victory over their passions and the conscious submission of a person to the ruling necessity in the world (this is probably why during the times of the Roman Empire, with its strongest state, collectivist principle, it is the teaching of the Stoics that turns into a kind of religion for the people, and the entire empire, the greatest using the influence in Syria and Palestine) Roman philosophy, like the philosophy of Hellenism, was predominantly ethical in nature and directly influenced the political life of society. In the center of her attention were constantly the problems of reconciling the interests of various groups, issues of achieving the highest good and the development of specific life rules. Under these conditions, the most widespread and influential was the philosophy of the Stoics (the so-called younger flock). Developing questions about the rights and obligations of the individual, about the nature of the relationship between the individual and the state, about legal and moral norms, the Roman flock sought to contribute to the education of a disciplined soldier and citizen.

1.1 Seneca

The largest representative of the Stoic school was Seneca (5 BC - 65 AD) - a thinker, statesman, mentor of Emperor Nero (for whom a treatise "On Mercy" was even written). By recommending to the emperor to adhere to moderation and a republican spirit in government, Seneca achieved only that he was "ordered to die." Following his philosophical principles, the philosopher opened his veins and died, surrounded by admirers.

The main task of becoming a personality, Seneca considers the achievement of virtue. Studying philosophy means not only theoretical studies, but also the actual implementation of virtue. According to the thinker, philosophy is not a cunning idea for the crowd, it is not in words, but in deeds (the meaning of philosophy is not to kill boredom), it forms and shapes the spirit, orders life, controls actions, indicates what is needed to do and what not to do. Any misfortune, Seneca believes, is a reason for virtuous self-improvement. However, “the worse life is, it's better to die” (of course, we are not talking about the financial situation). But Seneca does not praise suicide either, in his opinion, resorting to death is as shameful as avoiding it. As a result, the philosopher proposes to strive for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrendering to the will of the laws of nature.

1.2 Epictetus

Another significant representative of the Roman school of stoicism - Epictetus, who was a slave, later became a freedman, founded a philosophical school in Nikopol.

Epictetus formulated the main task of philosophy as follows: it is necessary to teach to distinguish between what is in our power to do and what is not. Everything outside of us, bodily, external world is beyond our control. But not these things themselves, but only our ideas about them make us happy or unhappy. It turns out that our thoughts, aspirations, and, consequently, our happiness are subject to us. All people are slaves of one God, and a person's entire life must be in connection with God, which makes a person able to courageously resist the vicissitudes of life (such opposition is the virtuous basis of stoicism). Surprising reflection: Epictetus was a pagan all his life, but his philosophy was very popular among Christians, being Christian in spirit.

1.3 Marcus Aurelius

Another prominent Roman Stoic is the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He pays the greatest attention in his philosophy to ethics.

The previous tradition of Stoicism distinguished only body and soul in man. Marcus Aurelius sees three principles in a person, adding intellect (Reasonable beginning, or nous) to the soul and body. If the former Stoics considered the soul to be the dominant principle, then Marcus Aurelius calls reason the leading principle. The mind is an inexhaustible source of impulses needed to worthy man life. You need to bring your mind into harmony with the nature of the whole and thereby achieve dispassion. According to Marcus Aurelius, it is in agreement with the universal reason that happiness is concluded.

2. Roman Epicureanism

Epicureanism is a moral philosophical doctrine that proclaimed the highest goal in life to enjoy and strive for sense gratification. The epicurean paradigm is based on four basic principles, the so-called "quadruple medicine":

should not be afraid of the gods.

should not be afraid of death.

the good is easily achievable.

evil is easily tolerated.

2.1 Titus Lucretius Carus

In the first half of the 1st century. BC e. Titus Lucretius Kar (99-55 BC), one of the greatest classics of Epicureanism, also worked. Lucretius Kar postulated the free will of man, the absence of the influence of the gods on the life of people (without rejecting, however, the very existence of the gods). He believed that the goal of a person's life should be ataraxia, he rejected the fear of death, death itself and the afterlife: in his opinion, matter is eternal and infinite. From him survived the only work - the poem "On the nature of things", its main idea is to discuss "The essence of the highest heavens and gods."

Of all the sorrows and sorrows of man, the most terrible, according to Lucretius, is the fear of death.

Having set himself the goal of completely expelling the fear of death, the poet admits that this must be done "by nature itself by its appearance and internal structure."

One can get rid of the fear of death only by knowing the essence of the soul and spirit. The first Lucretius characterizes as the area of \u200b\u200belementary experiences: sensations and feelings; it animates matter, moves it; the spirit is that which "dominates the body over the whole" - mind or mind. Despite the functional differences, according to Lucretius, the soul and spirit "are in close connection with each other and form a single essence", since "they have a bodily nature." This means that, like other bodies, "the spirit ... and the light souls of all creatures are born and die." They are inseparable from the body and live only with it. With this conclusion, Lucretius decisively criticizes the idealistic theory of the soul of Plato.

Nature, according to Lucretius, does not need any creation. If one thinks that “the gods were willing to make it,” then it is not clear why the “immortal blessed” needed it, the poet sneers.

3. Roman skepticism

Skepticism is a philosophical trend that proclaims doubt as a principle of thinking, especially doubt in the existence of an objective and reliable criterion of truth.

The main representative of Roman skepticism, Enesidemus of Knossos (c. 1st century BC), in his views is close to the philosophy of his ancient Greek predecessor Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Enesidem's thoughts is evidenced by the fact that he devoted his main work to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho ("Eight books of Pyrrhic discourses").

3.1 Enesidem

Enesidem saw skepticism as a way to overcome the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion from his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on immediate sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he uses the formulations of the so-called tropes. (Such as: doubting the foundation of a person to be a criterion of truth, his dependence on circumstances, refraining from judgments, etc.)

3.2 Sextus Empiricus

The most prominent representative of the so-called minor skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - "Foundations of Pyrrhonism". In other works - "Against the dogmatists", "Against mathematicians" - he sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism.

4. Roman eclecticism

Eclecticism as a philosophical trend sought to combine all the best that was in each of the philosophical schools. Its most prominent representative was Mark Thulius Cicero.

roman stoicism skepticism cicero

4.1 Mark Thulius Cicero

His philosophical treatises, which do not contain new ideas, are valuable in that they set out, in detail and without distortion, the teachings of the leading philosophical schools of his time.

Eclecticism in the presentation of Cicero focuses on social issues. His motive was the combination of those parts of different philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

Cicero outlined the main provisions of the ancient philosophical schools in a living and accessible language, created Latin scientific and philosophical terminology, and finally instilled in the Romans an interest in philosophy.

Conclusion

The main value of the works of the philosophers of Ancient Rome and all of Roman philosophy as a whole lies in its generalizing, mediating function. Having absorbed the main provisions and ideas of the Greek school, Roman philosophy subjected them to rethinking and generalization according to the Roman system of values. It was in such a generalized, eclectic Roman transcription that the philosophical teachings of Ancient Greece became the basis for the formation of the Christian worldview, which became undividedly dominant in the long era of the Middle Ages.

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