Post on the topic of dialectical logic. The origin of dialectical logic. Dialectical Logic in German Classical Philosophy

At the stage of theoretical research, a theoretical understanding of the object of research takes place, which consists in studying the object in statics and in dynamics. To carry out this operation, the researcher must possess certain tools that allow him to comprehensively study the object. Such tools are presented to the researcher by formal and dialectical logic.

Formal logic provides consistency of thinking.

1. Regardless of what the speech is about, it is impossible to both affirm and deny something at the same time.

2. It is impossible to accept certain statements without at the same time accepting everything that follows from them.

3. The impossible is not possible, the proven is doubtful, the obligatory is forbidden, etc.

In order to realize precisely scientific knowledge, formal logic alone is not enough. To prove the objective correctness of a conclusion or statement, to obtain objective ideas about the object under study, the researcher must possess dialectical logic.

Dialectical logic is the science of the basic forms and laws of cognizing thinking.

Principles defining dialectical logic:

1. Objectivity of consideration: knowing an object, the researcher must take it as it is, without any subjective additions. The researcher should not follow the lead of the initial hypothesis and try to fit the object of research under this hypothesis, endowing the object with qualities unusual for it.

2. Comprehensive consideration: the object under study must be covered from all sides, its infinitely diverse sides and connections must be identified and reflected. Only if a researcher studies the connections and relationships of phenomena and objects that he directly perceives, he will be able to cognize other phenomena and objects that are not directly perceived by him, and thereby deepen the process of cognition.

3. Unity of historical and logical: cognizing an object in its movement or development, the researcher must trace the entire history of the development of this object from the moment of its appearance to the present state. The logic of theoretical knowledge will only correctly reflect the internal content and patterns of development of an object or phenomenon when they are considered from the point of view of their origin and historical development. As a result, the historical is generalized, freed from random, insignificant features and turns into logical knowledge about an object or phenomenon.

4. Consideration of a thing as a unity of the struggle of opposites: each object contains opposites (eg merits and demerits). An approach to cognition of an object based on the disclosure of internal opposites allows us to more fully reveal its essence, to understand the driving forces of the development of an object. The struggle of opposites inherent in an object or phenomenon leads to their self-development and, studying the opposites, the researcher comes to the conclusion about the laws of development of the object under the influence of internal factors.

5. The principle of the development of knowledge: lies in the fact that in the process of cognition, the researcher cannot immediately reach the absolute truth, which would contain comprehensive knowledge about the object of cognition. The researcher comes to absolute knowledge about the object gradually. The movement of knowledge towards absolute truth occurs through a multitude of relative, incomplete, partial truths.

6. The principle of dialectical negation: new in knowledge can arise and develop only on the basis of the old. Denying outdated knowledge, the researcher must retain everything positive and transfer it to new knowledge. There is an inextricable link between the old and the new in the process of denial. Often the old remains part of the new.

7. The principle of the unity of form and content: content as a collection internal elements object, and form, as the internal organization of content, represent the unity of opposites. The struggle between them leads to the destruction of the old form and its replacement by the form corresponding to the new content. This process must be borne in mind when studying any object or phenomenon.

8. The principle of the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative: makes it possible to understand the very process of movement of an object, reveals the mechanism of transformation of objects into a new quality. Quantitative changes, accumulating, cause qualitative changes. Based on this principle, the researcher can not only cognize the essence, but also predict the existence of such objects and phenomena that no one has yet observed.

The above principles and patterns of cognition can become a kind of researcher's commandments. The researcher, guided by these "commandments" will be able to penetrate deeper into the essence of the object under study.

Dialectical logic provides guidelines for rational thinking that ensure the development of knowledge, its movement towards truth. Dialectical logic is dialectics in action, in its application to thinking, cognition, and practice. Dialectical logic studies the ways of thinking that ensure the coincidence of the content of knowledge with the object, i.e. achievement of objective truth.

The origins of dialectical logic go back to the intellectual searches of the great thinkers of antiquity: Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Lao Tzu, etc. The largest systematizer and, in fact, the founder of dialectical logic is G. Hegel (1770-1831). However, the unique version of dialectical logic, developed by Hegel in the fundamental work "Science of Logic" and a number of other works, unfortunately, differs in "dark depth" and is beyond the reach of most even professional philosophers. Colossal work to clarify the rational meaning of dialectics and dialectical logic, to reveal their methodological potential was done by the followers of Hegel - K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895). However, even these thinkers, who found themselves in the “gravitational field” of the grandiose Hegelian system, did not succeed in completely overcoming its “dark depth”.

The merit of deep rethinking and processing of Hegel's dialectical logic, its development and presentation in modern, clear, constructive forms belongs to the Russian thinker and revolutionary, founder of the world's first socialist state V.I. Lenin (1870-1924).

The basic principles of dialectical logic include:

• 1. Comprehensive consideration of the object.
• 2. Historical approach to the object, consideration of its development.
• 3. Allocation of the main (decisive) link that determines the nature of the object.
• 4. Revealing the essential foundations of the object through the disclosure of its fundamental contradictions.
• 5. Concreteness of truth.
• 6. Achievement of the developed integrity of the object on the basis of dialectical synthesis.
• 1. Comprehensive consideration of the object.“In order to really know a subject, one must embrace, study all its aspects, all connections and 'mediations'. We will never achieve this completely, but the requirement for comprehensiveness will prevent us from making mistakes ... ”. The meaning of this formula is that without comprehensive consideration of the essential aspects of an object and its connections with other objects, it is impossible to form an objective, true idea of ​​this object, it is impossible to scientifically explain its state, methods of action and development trends. For example, when solving the problems of technical re-equipment of production, purchasing new equipment, it is important to comprehensively assess the possible options for the required equipment (technology). In this case, one should take into account not only the actual technical characteristics of this equipment(productivity, reliability, product quality), but also economic (cost, payback period, effect / cost ratio, etc.).
• 2. Historical approach to the object. The principle of historicism presupposes the consideration of the object "... in its development," self-movement "... change ...". “… The most important thing in order to approach… a question from a scientific point of view is not to forget the main historical connection, to look at each issue from the point of view of how a well-known phenomenon in history arose, what are the main stages in its development that this phenomenon took place, and from the point of view of his development to look at what the given thing has become now. "

The need for a historical approach to the object is due to the fact that the causes, roots of many phenomena, structures, processes of the present are rooted in the past. Therefore, without knowledge of the history of the object, it is impossible to explain with sufficient depth and completeness its current state, methods of action and development trends.

• 3. Highlighting the main (decisive) link in a complex phenomenon... "You must be able to find at every special moment that special link in the chain, which must be grasped with all your strength in order to hold the whole chain." The principle of identifying the decisive link follows from the inequality of their elements and connections, which is natural for complex objects, and the varying degrees of their influence on the final result. Decisive links are those points of the object where the primary application of effort can have the greatest effect. The role of this principle is all the more significant, the more complex, the more urgent the problem to be solved and the more acutely the shortage of resources is felt.
• 4. Revealing the essential basis of the object through the opening and analysis of its fundamental contradictions."In the proper sense, dialectics is the study of contradictions in the very essence of objects." The idea of ​​a breakthrough to the deep foundations and connections of an object through the disclosure of its fundamental contradictions is based on the fact that it is these contradictions that draw into the orbit of their intense interaction all parties, connections, processes of the object, determine its state and development trends. Therefore, their opening and analysis create a kind of research "window" into the deep world of the object, allow us to understand its essential basis and specifics.
• 5. Concreteness of truth."Dialectical logic teaches that there is no abstract truth, truth is always concrete ..." The concreteness of truth means that the depth and accuracy of knowledge are possible only when combining the abstract with the concrete, theory with practice, when applying theoretical conclusions, taking into account the specific specifics of the subject. According to this principle, knowledge can be considered true only if it takes into account the specific conditions of the object's existence.
• 6. Achievement of the developed integrity of the object based on dialectical synthesis. The mechanism of dialectical synthesis is described by the logical formula: “thesis

The relevance of this formula is due to the fact that it allows you to overcome the "blockages" of ossified one-sidedness, in which science and practice often get stuck, to find ways out of confrontational dead ends of theoretical thought, to predict the contours of qualitatively new, more developed and holistic forms of the future. In any sphere of human activity, one has to face an unproductive opposition of one-sided approaches that stubbornly insist on their truth, self-worth and at the same time reject the values ​​of the opposite side. The uncompromising struggle of opposing extremes leads the development of the object to a dead end, blocks the movement forward to new forms and meanings.

Examples of one-sided extremes, limited by the assertion of their imaginary "self-sufficiency" and the denial of the values ​​of the opposite side, are the antitheses: "materialism - idealism", "liberalism - communism", "capitalism - socialism", "the market is a planned mechanism", etc. Such bastions of stagnation oppositions generated by the fruitless confrontation of ossified, mutually denying approaches are widespread in all spheres of science and practice and are a strong brake on development.

The formula of dialectical synthesis indicates a way to unblock stagnant dead ends by means of a mutually limiting synthesis of opposing extremes. The dialectical nature of the synthesis means that it does not take place according to the formula of eclectic mixing of the sides, but using the potential of their opposition to process these sides into a qualitatively new, more developed integrity. In dialectical synthesis, the potential of the opposition of the parties is subordinated to achieving their adequate mutual limitation, cutting off unproductive extremes, combining the viable parts of these opposites into a new integrity.

Per last years several monographs were published on the dialectics and logic of Marx's Capital. This indicates that Soviet philosophers are following the instructions of Lenin, who attached great importance to the study of the logical content of the great work of scientific communism.

In contrast to the already published works, the reviewed work is devoted to the study of the logical structure of "Capital", the problem of logical categories and their role in cognition (on the example of the analysis of goods and money). Tracing the course of Marx's analysis of economic categories and their transitions into each other, the author seeks to reveal the logical basis, the "logical fabric" of this analysis, to reveal the place and role of various logical categories. And it should be noted that the author manages to clearly distinguish the logical content of Capital. The guiding idea in the development of these problems in the work under review is the instruction of V.I. Lenin on the nature of logic as a science, that it coincides with dialectics and the theory of knowledge.

To reveal the depth and power of Marxist dialectical logic - this is the main goal set by the author. L.A. Mankovsky prefaces his research with an exposition of general philosophical and logical principles that determine the combination of logical categories into a system. Under logical categories are meant in the monograph "universal concepts, which express the versatility of reality, taken in its general form (space, time, quality, measure, form, content, reason, etc.), in the discovery of a logical regular connection between which consists one of the most important tasks of dialectical logic ”. Universal categories in "Capital" are organically linked with the categories of concrete science, political economy. This connection is manifested, on the one hand, in the fact that each economic category is analyzed by means of a number of logical categories; on the other hand, in the connections of economic categories, there is also a mutual transition of logical categories, a certain logical framework.

The concept of a system of categories presupposes their certain ordering, sequence. The logical order of the system of economic categories was determined by Marx on the basis of the principle of historicism, the coincidence of the logical and the historical. The logical, that is, the theoretically consistent form of reflection of the historical process in the system of categories, is based on an objective historical sequence, but traced in a "pure form", that is, not on a simple deduction of the present from the past, but on one that is repelled by the self-movement of the existing system in the present and allows you to understand its genesis. "Beginning", the first category of the theory must, therefore, reflect such a universal side, a link of the system, which is a condition and prerequisite for the existence of all other sides of the whole, their genetic basis, "cell", "embryo". Such a side of capitalist production is commodity, commodity exchange. The embryo acts as the possibility of deploying the entire system, its abstract foundation.

the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and human thinking. These laws are reflected in the form of special concepts - logical. categories. Therefore, L. d. Can be defined as the science of dialectic. categories. Representing a dialectical system. categories, she explores their interconnection, sequence and transitions from one category to another. Subject and tasks of L. d. Dialectical logic proceeds from materialistic. solving the main question of philosophy, considering thinking as a reflection of objective reality. This understanding has been and is being resisted by the idealistic. the concept of L. d., proceeding from the idea of ​​thinking as an independent sphere, independent of the world around a person. The struggle between these two mutually exclusive interpretations of thinking characterizes the entire history of philosophy and logic. There is a logic about an object, which reigns in all of reality, and a logical logic, which is a reflection in the thinking of the movement dominating in all reality by opposites. In this sense, L. d. Is subjective logic. In addition, L. d. Can also be defined as the science of the most general laws of connections and development of phenomena in the objective world. L. d. "... is a doctrine not about external forms of thinking, but about the laws of development of" all material, natural and spiritual things ", that is, the development of the entire concrete content of the world and cognition of it, that is, the total , the conclusion and the story of the knowledge of the world "(Lenin V. I., Soch., vol. 38, pp. 80–81). L. d. As a science coincides with dialectics and with the theory of knowledge: "... 3 words are not needed: they are one and the same" (ibid., P. 315). L. d. Is usually opposed to formal logic (see also Art. Logic). This opposition is due to the fact that formal logic studies the forms of thinking, abstracting both from their content and from the development of thinking, while LD studies the logical. forms in connection with the content and in their historical. development. Noting the difference between formal and dialectical, meaningful logic, their opposition should not be exaggerated. They are closely related to each other in the real process of thinking, as well as in its study. L. d. By definition. from the point of view, it also considers what is the subject of consideration of formal logic, namely, the doctrine of the concept, judgment, inference, scientific method; she includes in the subject of her research her philosophical, methodological. basics and problems. The task of L. d. Is, relying on generalizations of the history of science, philosophy, technology, and creativity in general, to investigate the logical. forms and laws of scientific knowledge, methods of constructing and regularities in the development of a scientific theory, to reveal its practical, in particular experimental, foundations, to identify ways of correlating knowledge with its object, etc. An important task of L. d. Is the analysis of the historically established methods of scientific research. cognition and identification of heuristic. the possibilities of this or that method, the limits of its application and the possibility of the emergence of new methods (see Methodology). Developing on the basis of generalized societies. practice and achievements of sciences, L. d., in turn, plays a huge role in relation to specific sciences, acting as their general theoretical. and methodological. bases (see Science). The history of philosophy as a science plays a special role in relation to LD. The latter, in essence, is the very same logic theory with the difference that in the logic movement we have a consistent development of abstract logical logic. concepts, and in the history of philosophy - the sequential development of the same concepts, but only in a specific form of replacing each other philosophy. systems. The history of philosophy suggests to L. d. The sequence of development of its categories. The sequence of development is logical. categories in the composition of L. d. is dictated primarily by the objective sequence of development of theoretical. knowledge, which, in turn, reflect the objective sequence of development of real historical processes, cleansed of the accidents that violate them and do not have the meaning of zigzags (see. Logical and historical). L. d. Is an integral, but by no means a complete system: it develops and becomes enriched together with the development of the phenomena of the objective world and together with human progress. knowledge. And with t about r and I L. d. Dialectical thinking has the most ancient origin. Already primitive thinking was imbued with the consciousness of development, dialectics. Ancient Eastern, as well as Antich. philosophy created enduring examples of dialectical. theories. Antich. dialectic based on living feelings. perception of the material space, already starting with the first representatives of the Greek. philosophy firmly formulated all reality as becoming, as combining opposites in itself, as eternally mobile and independent. Decisively all the philosophers of early Greek. the classics taught about universal and eternal motion, while at the same time imagining the cosmos as a complete and beautiful whole, as something eternal and at rest. It was a universal dialectic of movement and rest. Early Greek philosophers. the classics taught, further, about the general variability of things as a result of the transformation of any one basic element (earth, water, air, fire and ether) into any other. It was a universal dialectic of identity and difference. Further, all early Greek. the classics taught about being as about sensually perceived matter, seeing in it one or another pattern. The numbers of the Pythagoreans, at least in the early era, are completely inseparable from the bodies. The Logos of Heraclitus is the world fire, flaring up and extinguishing regularly. Diogenes of Apollonian thought has air. The atoms of Leucippus and Democritus are geometric. bodies, eternal and indestructible, not subject to any changes, but sensibly perceived matter is composed of them. All early Greek. the classics taught about identity, eternity and time: everything eternal flows in time, and everything temporary contains an eternal basis, hence the theory of the eternal circulation of matter. Everything is created by the gods; but the gods themselves are nothing more than a generalization of material elements, so that in the end the cosmos was not created by anyone or anything, but arose by itself and constantly arises in its eternal existence. So, already early Greek. The classics (6th – 5th centuries BC) thought over the main categories of LD, although, being in the grip of spontaneous materialism, she was far from the system of these categories and from the separation of LD as a special science. Heraclitus and other Greek. natural philosophers gave formulas for eternal becoming as a unity of opposites. Aristotle considered Zeno to be the first dialectician of Eleans (A 1.9.10, Diels9). It was the Eleatics who for the first time sharply opposed unity and plurality, or the mental and sensory world. On the basis of the philosophy of Heraclitus and the Eleatics, in the conditions of growing subjectivism, in Greece, naturally, a purely negative dialectic arose among the sophists, who, in the incessant change of contradictory things, as well as concepts, saw the relativity of man. knowledge and brought L. d. to complete nihilism, not excluding morality. However, Zeno also made life and everyday conclusions from dialectics (A 9. 13). In this environment, Xenophon portrays his Socrates, striving to give a doctrine of pure concepts, but without sophistic ones. of relativism, looking for the most common elements in them, dividing them into genera and types, making sure to draw moral conclusions from this and using the method of interview: "Yes, and the very word" dialectics ", - he said, - came about because people, deliberating in meetings, divide objects by genus ... "(Memor. IV 5, 12). In no case should the role of the Sophists and Socrates be diminished in the history of L. d. It is they who, moving away from too ontological. L. d. Of the early classics, brought the human into a stormy movement. thought with its eternal contradictions, with its relentless search for truth in an atmosphere of fierce disputes and the pursuit of more and more subtle and precise mental categories. This spirit of eristics (disputes) and question-and-answer, colloquial theory of dialectics from now on began to permeate the whole of antiquity. philosophy and all its characteristic L. d. This spirit is felt in the intensely thoughtful fabric of Plato's dialogues, in the distinctions in Aristotle, in the verbal-formalistic. logic of the Stoics and even among the Neoplatonists, to-rye for all their mystical. attitudes endlessly plunged into eristics, into the dialectics of the finest categories, into the interpretation of the old and simple mythology, into the sophisticated systematics of all logical. categories. Ancient literature is unthinkable without the sophists and Socrates, even where it has nothing in common with them in its content. The Greek is an everlasting talker, debater, verbal balancing act. The same is also true of his L. d., Which arose on the foundations of sophistry and the Socratic method of dialectical conversation. Continuing the thought of his teacher and interpreting the world of concepts, or ideas, as a special independent reality, Plato understood dialectics not only as the division of concepts into clearly separate genera (Soph. 253 D. f.) And not only the search for truth with the help of questions and answers (Crat . 390 C), but also "knowledge of existence and true existence" (Phileb. 58 A). He considered it possible to achieve this only with the help of bringing contradictory particulars into an integral and general (R. P. VII 537 C). Remarkable examples of this kind of ancient idealistic literary movement are contained in Plato's dialogues "The Sophist" and "Parmenides". The Sophist (254 B – 260 A) gives just the dialectics of the five basic dialectics. categories - movement, rest, difference, identity and being, as a result of which being is interpreted here by Plato as an actively self-contradicting coordinated separateness. Every thing turns out to be identical with itself and with everything else, different with itself and with everything else, as well as resting and mobile in itself and in relation to everything else. In Plato's Parmenides, this literary movement is brought to an extreme degree of detail, subtlety, and systematics. Here, at first, the dialectic of the one is given, as an absolute and indistinguishable unity, and then the dialectic of a single-separate whole, both in relation to itself, and in relation to everything else, which depends on it (Parm. 137 C - 166 C). Plato's reasoning about different categories of literary movement is scattered over all of his works, from which one can point at least to the dialectic of pure becoming (Tim. 47? - 53 C) or the dialectic of cosmic. unity, standing above the unity of individual things and their sum, as well as above the very opposition of subject and object (R. P. VI, 505 A - 511 A). It is not without reason that Diogenes Laertius (III, 56) considered Plato to be the inventor of dialectics. Aristotle, who placed Plato's ideas within matter itself and thereby transformed them into forms of things and, in addition, added here the doctrine of potency and energy (as well as a number of other similar doctrines), raised L. d. To a higher level, although he calls this whole area of ​​philosophy not LD, but "the first philosophy." He retains the term "logic" for formal logic, and by "dialectics" he understands the doctrine of probable judgments and inferences or of appearance (Anal. Prior. 11, 24a 22, and other places). The importance of Aristotle in the history of L. d. Is enormous. His doctrine of four reasons - material, formal (or rather, semantic, eidetic), driving and target - is interpreted in such a way that all these four reasons exist in every thing completely indistinguishable and identical with the thing itself. Since modern. t. sp. this, undoubtedly, is the doctrine of the unity of opposites, no matter how Aristotle himself would highlight the law of contradiction (or rather, the law of non-contradiction) both in being and in cognition. Aristotle's doctrine of the prime mover, which thinks about itself, i.e. it is for itself both a subject and an object, it is nothing but a fragment of the same L. d. True, the famous 10 categories of Aristotle are considered by him separately and quite descriptively. But in his "first philosophy" all these categories are interpreted rather dialectically. Finally, there is no need to place low on what he himself calls dialectics, namely the system of inferences in the field of probable assumptions. Here, in any case, Aristotle gives the dialectic of becoming, since probability itself is only possible in the field of becoming. Lenin says: "The logic of Aristotle is a request, a search, an approach to the logic of Hegel, and from it, from the logic of Aristotle (who everywhere, at every step, raises the question of ) made a dead scholasticism, throwing away all searches, hesitations, methods of posing questions "(Soch., vol. 38, p. 366). Among the Stoics, "only the wise is a dialectician" (SVF II fr. 124; III fr. 717 Arnim.), And they defined dialectics as "the science of speaking correctly about judgments in questions and answers" and as "the science of the true, false and neutral" (II fr. 48). Judging by the fact that the Stoics divided their logic into dialectics and rhetoric (ibid., Cf. I fr. 75; II fr. 294), the Stoics' understanding of L. d. Was not at all ontological. In contrast, the Epicureans understood L. d. As a "canon," that is, ontologically and materialistically (Diog. L. X 30). However, if we take into account not the terminology of the Stoics, but their fact. the doctrine of being, then in the main we find Heraclitean cosmology, i.e. the doctrine of eternal becoming and the mutual transformation of elements, the doctrine of fire-logos, the material hierarchy of the cosmos, and Ch. difference from Heraclitus in the form of persistent teleology. Thus, in the doctrine of being, the Stoics also turn out to be not only materialists, but also supporters of L. d. The line of Democritus - Epicurus - Lucretius, too, in no case can be understood mechanically. The appearance in them of each thing from atoms is also dialectical. a leap, since each thing carries with it a completely new quality in comparison with the atoms from which it arises. It is also known antique. assimilation of atoms to letters (67 A 9, see also the book: "Ancient Greek atomists" A. Makovelsky, p. 584): a whole thing appears from atoms in the same way as tragedy and comedy from letters. Obviously, the atomists are here thinking over the LD of the whole and the parts. In the last centuries of ancient philosophy, the dialectic of Plato received an especially great development. Plotinus has a special treatise on dialectics (Ennead. 1 3); and the further neoplatonism developed until the end of antiquity. the world, all the more refined, scrupulous and scholastic, became here L. d. The basic neoplatonic hierarchy of being is completely dialectical: the one, which is the absolute singularity of all that exists, merging in itself all subjects and objects and therefore indistinguishable in itself; the numerical separation of this one; the qualitative fulfillment of these primary numbers, or Nus-mind, which is the identity of the universal subject and the universal object (borrowed from Aristotle) ​​or the world of ideas; the transition of these ideas into becoming, a cut is the driving force of the cosmos, or the world soul; the product and result of this mobile essence of the world soul, or cosmos; and finally, gradually decreasing in their semantic content of cosmic. spheres, starting from the sky and ending with the earth. Dialectical in Neoplatonism is also the very doctrine of the gradual and continuous outpouring and self-separation of the original one, i.e. what is usually called in antiquity. and Wed-century. philosophy by emanationism (Plotinus, Porfiry, Iamblichus, Proclus and many other philosophers of the end of antiquity of the 3rd – 6th centuries). Here is the mass of productive dialectics. concepts, but all of them, in view of the specific. The features of a given era are often given in mystical form. reasoning and scrupulous scholastic. taxonomy. Dialectically important, for example. , the concept of bifurcation of a single, mutual reflection of the subject and object in cognition, the doctrine of the eternal mobility of the cosmos, of pure becoming, etc. As a result of the review of antiquity. L. d. It is necessary to say that almost all chap. categories of this science based on a conscious attitude to the elements of becoming. But no antique. idealism, nor antich. materialism could not cope with this task due to its contemplation, the fusion of idea and matter in some cases and their rupture in other cases, due to the primacy of religious mythology in some cases and enlightenment relativism in other cases, due to the weak awareness of categories as a reflection of reality and in view of constant inability to understand the creative. the impact of thinking on reality. To a large extent, this also applies to the Middle-century. philosophy, in which the place of the previous mythology was taken by other mythology, but here too, L. d. still remained constrained by too blind ontologism. Domination is monotheistic. religions in Wed. century transferred L. d. to the field of theology, using Aristotle and Neoplatonism to create scholasticly developed teachings about the personal absolute. In terms of the development of L. d., This was a step forward, since Philos. consciousness gradually became accustomed to feel its own power, albeit arising from the personalistically understood absolute. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (for example, among the Cappadocians - Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa - and in general among many fathers and teachers of the church, at least, for example, in Augustine) and the Arab-Jewish teaching on the social absolute (for example, Ibn Roshd or in Kabbalah) were built mainly by the methods of L. d. The symbol of faith approved at the first two ecumenical councils (325 and 381) taught about the divine substance, expressed in three persons, with the complete identity of this substance and these persons and with full their differences, as well as with the self-identical development of the persons themselves: the initial bosom of eternal movement (father), the dismembered regularity of this movement (son or god-word) and the eternal creator. the formation of this immovable regularity (holy spirit). In science, the connection of this concept with the Plato-Aristotelian, Stoich has long been clarified. and neo-platonic. L. D. This L. D. is most deeply expressed in the treatise of Proclus "Elements of Theology" and in the so-called. "Areopagitics", representing the Christian reception of proklysm. Both were of great importance throughout the Middle-century. L. d. (See A.I.Brilliantova, The influence of eastern theology on the western in the works of John Scotus Eriugena, 1898). This L. d., Based on religious-mystical. thinking, came to Nicholas of Kuzansky, who built his L. d. just on Prokla and Areopagitics. Such are the teachings of Nikolai Kuzansky about the identity of knowledge and ignorance, about the coincidence of maximum and minimum, about eternal motion, about the threefold structure of eternity, about the identity of the triangle, circle and ball in the theory of deity, about the coincidence of opposites, about any in any, about the folding and unfolding of the absolute. zero, etc. In addition, Nicholas of Cusan has the Antique-Middle-Age. neoplatonism merges with the ideas of the emerging mathematical. analysis, so that the idea of ​​eternal becoming is introduced into the concept of the absolute itself, and the absolute itself begins to be understood as a unique and all-encompassing integral or, depending on m. sp., a differential; he has such, for example, concepts as being - possibility (posse – fieri). This is the concept of eternity, which is the eternal becoming of the eternal possibility of everything new and new, which is its true being. Thus, the infinitesimal principle, i.e. the principle of the infinitely small, determines the existential characteristics of the absolute itself. The same is, for example, and his concept of possest, i.e. posse est, or the concept, again, of eternal potency, generating everything new and new, so that this potency is the last being. Here L. d. With an infinitesimal coloration becomes a very clear concept. In this regard, it is necessary to mention Giordano Bruno, a Heraclitean-minded pantheist and pre-Spinozist materialist, who also taught about the unity of opposites and the identity of minimum and maximum (understanding this minimum is also close to the then growing doctrine of the infinitely small), and the infinity of the Universe (quite dialectically interpreting that its center is everywhere, at any point), etc., etc. Such philosophers as Nikolai Cusansky and Giordano Bruno still continued to teach about deity and about the divine unity of opposites, but they have these concepts are already getting infinitesimal coloration; and a century or one and a half later, the very real calculus of the infinitesimal appeared, representing a new stage in the development of the world liberal arts. In modern times, in connection with the rising capitalist. formation and dependent on it individualistic. philosophy, during the domination of the rationalistic. metaphysics math. analysis (Descartes, Leibniz, Newton, Euler), operating with variables i.e. infinitely becoming functions and quantities, was not always conscious, but in fact, steadily maturing area of ​​L. d. After all, what is called a variable in mathematics is from philosophy. t. sp. becoming a value; and as a result of this formation, certain limiting values ​​arise, which in the full sense of the word turn out to be the unity of opposites, as, for example, the derivative is the unity of opposites of argument and function, not to mention the very formation of quantities and their transition to the limit. It must be borne in mind that, excluding neo-Platonism, the very term "L. d." or was not used at all in those philosophies. systems cf. centuries and modern times, which in their essence were dialectical, or were used in a sense close to formal logic. Such are, for example, the treatises of the 9th century. John Damascene "Dialectics" in Byzantine theology and "On the division of nature" by John Scotus Eriugena in Western theology. The teachings of Descartes about heterogeneous space, Spinoza about thinking and matter or about freedom and necessity, or Leibniz's about the presence of each monad in every other monad undoubtedly contain very deep dialectical constructions, but these philosophers themselves are not called dialectical logic. Likewise, the entire philosophy of modern times was also a step forward towards realizing what L. d.Empiricists of modern times (F. Bacon, Locke, Hume), with all their metaphysicality and dualism, gradually, one way or another, taught to see the reflection of reality in categories ... Rationalists, with all their subjectivity and formalistic. metaphysics, nevertheless, was taught to find some kind of independent movement in categories. There were even attempts at some synthesis of both, but these attempts. could not be crowned with success in view of too much individualism, dualism and formalism of the bourgeois philosophy of the new era, which arose on the basis of private entrepreneurship and too sharp opposition of "I" and "not-I", moreover, the primacy and the team always remained in favor. "I" as opposed to passively understood "not-I". The achievements and failures of such a synthesis in pre-Kant philosophy can be demonstrated, for example, on Spinoza. The first definitions in his Ethics are quite dialectical. If essence and existence coincide in the cause of itself, then this is the unity of opposites. Substance is that which exists by itself and is represented through itself. It is also the unity, opposites - of being and the idea of ​​it, which it itself defines. The attribute of a substance is what the mind represents in it as its essence. It is a coincidence in the essence of what it is and its mental reflection. The two attributes of substance - thinking and extension - are one and the same. Attributes are endless, but each of them reflects the whole substance. Undoubtedly, here we are dealing with nothing other than L. d. And yet even Spinozism is too blindly ontological, teaches too vaguely about reflection and understands too little the reverse reflection of being in being itself. And without this, it is impossible to construct a correct and systematically realized LD. The classical form for modern times was created by him. idealism, which began with its negative and subjective. interpretation by Kant and passed through Fichte and Schelling to Hegel's objective idealism. For Kant, L. d. Is nothing more than the exposure of human illusions. mind, desiring to necessarily achieve integral and absolute knowledge. since scientific knowledge, according to Kant, is only such knowledge that relies on feelings. experience and is substantiated by the activity of reason, and the higher concept of reason (God, peace, soul, freedom) does not possess these properties, then L. d., according to Kant, reveals those inevitable contradictions in which the mind gets entangled, wishing to achieve absolute integrity ... However, this purely negative interpretation of L. d. By Kant had a tremendous historical background. the meaning that she found in a human. to his mind the necessary inconsistency. And this later led to the search for overcoming these contradictions of reason, which formed the basis of L. d. Already in a positive sense. It should also be noted that Kant was the first to use the very term "L. d." But the most interesting thing is that even Kant, like all world philosophy, unconsciously nevertheless succumbed to the impression of the enormous role that L. d. Plays in thinking. In spite of his dualism, in spite of his metaphysics, in spite of his formalism, he, imperceptibly to himself, nevertheless very often used the principle of the unity of opposites. Thus, in the chapter "On the schematism of pure concepts of reason" of his main work, Critique of Pure Reason, he suddenly asks himself the question: how are these sensory phenomena subsumed under reason and its categories? After all, it is clear that there must be something in common between the one and the other. This general, a cut he calls here a scheme, is time. Time connects a sensually flowing phenomenon with the categories of reason, since it is both empirical and a priori (see Critique of Pure Reason, P., 1915, p. 119). Here in Kant, of course, there is confusion, because according to his basic doctrine, time is not at all something sensible, but a priori, so this scheme does not at all give K.-N. combining sensuality and reason. However, there is no doubt that, unconsciously for himself, Kant understands here by time becoming in general; and in becoming, of course, each category appears at every moment and is removed at the same moment. So, the cause of this phenomenon, characterizing its origin, necessarily at every moment of this latter manifests itself in different ways and in different ways, i.e. constantly arises and disappears. Thus, dialectical. the synthesis of sensibility and reason, and, moreover, precisely in the sense of L. d., was actually built already by Kant himself, but metaphysically-dualistic. prejudice prevented him from giving a clear and simple concept. Of the four groups of categories, quality and quantity undoubtedly merge dialectically into the group of relation categories; and the group of categories of modality is only a refinement of the obtained group of relations. Even within the dep. the categories of groups are given by Kant according to the principle of the dialectical triad: unity and multitude merge into that unity of these opposites, which Kant himself calls wholeness; as for reality and negation, then, undoubtedly, their dialectic. synthesis is a limitation, since for this latter it is necessary to fix something and it is necessary to have something beyond this reality in order to outline the border between the affirmed and the non-affirmed, i.e. limit what is approved. Finally, even the famous antinomies of Kant (as, for example: the world is limited and unlimited in space and time), in the end, are also removed by Kant himself using the method of becoming: in fact, the observed world is finite; however, we cannot find this end in time and space; therefore, the world is neither finite nor infinite, but there is only a search for this end in accordance with the regulatory requirement of reason (see ibid., pp. 310-15). "Criticism of the power of judgment" is also an unconscious dialectic. synthesis of Critique of Pure Reason and Critique of Practical Reason. Fichte immediately made it easier to systematically. L. d. By his understanding of things-in-themselves as also subjective categories, devoid of any objective existence. The result was absolute subjectivism and thus no longer dualism, but monism, which only contributed to the harmonious systematic. the separation of some categories from others and brought L. d. closer to antimetaphysics. monism. One had only to introduce into this absolute spirit of Fichte also nature, which we find in Schelling, as well as history, which we find in Hegel, a system of Hegel's objective idealism arose, which within the bounds of this absolute spirit gave L ... etc., covering the entire area of ​​reality, starting from purely logical. categories, passing through nature and spirit and ending with the categorical dialectics of all historical. process. Hegelian L. d., If not to talk about all other areas of knowledge, although, according to Hegel, they also represent the movement of certain categories, created by the same world spirit, is a systematically developed science, in which an exhaustive and a meaningful picture of the general forms of movement of dialectics (see K. Marx, Capital, 1955, vol. 1, p. 19). Hegel is absolutely right with his t. Sp., When he divides L. d. Into being, essence, and concept. Being is the very first and most abstract definition of thought. It is concretized in the categories of quality, quantity and measure (and by the latter he understands just a qualitatively defined quantity and a quantitatively limited quality). Hegel understands his quality in the form of initial being, a cut, after its exhaustion, passes into non-being and becoming as a dialectical. the synthesis of being and non-being (since in any becoming, being always arises, but at the same moment it is destroyed). Having exhausted the category of being, Hegel considers the same being, but this time with the opposition of this being to himself. Naturally, from this, the category of the essence of being is born, and in this essence Hegel, again in full agreement with his principles, finds the essence in itself, its phenomenon and dialectical. synthesis of the original essence and phenomenon in the category of reality. This exhausts his essence. But essence cannot be divorced from being. Hegel also explores that stage of the literary movement, where categories appear that contain both being and essence in themselves. This is a concept. Hegel is an absolute idealist and therefore it is in the concept that he finds the highest flowering of both being and essence. Hegel regards his concept as a subject, as an object and as an absolute idea; his category of L. d. Is both an idea and an absolute. In addition, the Hegelian concept can, as Engels did, be interpreted materialistically - as the general nature of things or, as Marx did, as the general law of process, or, as Lenin did, as cognition. And then this section of Hegel's logic loses its mysticism. character and takes on a rational meaning. In general, all these self-propelled categories are thought out by Hegel so deeply and comprehensively that, for example, Lenin, concluding his synopses of Hegel's Science of Logic, says: Hegel's alistic work is the least of idealism, and most of all materialism. “Contradictory,” but true! ”(Soch., Vol. 38, p. 227). In Hegel we have the highest achievement of all Western philosophy in the sense of creating precisely the logic of becoming, when all logical categories are invariably taken in their dynamics and in their creative mutual generation and when the categories, although they turn out to be the product of only spirit, but as such an objective principle, in which nature, society and all history are represented.From the pre-Marxist philosophy of the 19th century, a huge step forward was the activity of the Russian revolutionary democrats - Belinsky , Herzen, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov, whose revolutionary theory and practice not only made it possible to move from idealism to materialism, but also led them to the dialectic of becoming, which helped them create the most advanced concepts in various areas of cultural history.Lenin writes that Hegel's dialectics was for Herzen the "algebra of revolution" (see Works, vol. 18, p. 10). ov: "The life of nature is a continuous development, the development of an abstract simple, incomplete, spontaneous into a concrete. Complete, complex, the development of the embryo by the dismemberment of everything contained in its concept, and the constant urge to lead this development to the possible full correspondence of the form to the content - this is the dialectic of the physical world" (Collected. cit., vol. 3, 1954, p. 127). Chernyshevsky also expressed deep judgments about L. d. (See, for example, Poln. Sobr. Soch., Vol. 5, 1950, p. 391; vol. 3, 1947, p. 207-09; vol. 1949, p. 165; vol. 4, 1948, p. 70). Under the conditions of the time of the revolutionary. democrats could only approach materialistic. dialectics. L. d. In bourgeois philosophy 2nd field of l. 1 9 - 2 0 c. Bourgeois philosophy rejects those achievements in the field of dialectics. logics, to-rye were in the previous philosophy. L. D. Hegel is rejected as "sophistry", "logical error" and even "painful perversion of the spirit" (R. Haym, Hegel and his time - R. Haym, Hegel und seine Zeit 1857; A. Trendelenburg, Logical research - A Trendelenburg, Logische Untersuchungen, 1840; E. Hartmann, On the dialectical method - E. Hartmann, ?ber die dialektische Methode, 1868). The attempts of the right-wing Hegelians (Mikhelet, Rosenkrantz) to defend L. d. Were unsuccessful, both because of the dogmatic attitude towards her, and because of the metaphysics. the limitations of their own views. On the other hand, the development of mathematical. logic and its huge successes in founding mathematics lead to its absolutization as the only possible scientific logic. Remaining in the present. bourgeois. philosophy, the elements of L. d. are associated primarily with the criticism of the limited formalism. understanding the process of cognition and reproducing Hegel's teachings about the "concreteness of the concept." In neo-Kantianism, instead of an abstract concept, built on the basis of the law of the inverse ratio of the volume and content of a concept and therefore leading to ever more empty abstractions, a "concrete concept" is put, understood by analogy with a mathematical. function, i.e. general law, to-ry covers all dep. cases by using a variable that takes any consecutive values. Taking this idea from the logic of M. Drobisch (New exposition of logic ... - M. Drobisch, Neue Darstellung der Logik ..., 1836), the neo-Kantianism of the Marburg school (Cohen, Cassirer, Natorp) generally replaces the logic of "abstract concepts" with "logic mathematical concepts of a function ". This leads, with a misunderstanding of the fact that the function is a way of reproducing reality by reason, and not itself, to the denial of the concept of substance and "physical. Idealism". However, neo-Kantian logic retains a number of idealistic moments. L. d. - understanding cognition as a process of "creating" an object (an object as an "endless task"); the principle of "beginning" (Ursprung), which consists in "preserving the union in isolation and isolation in the union"; "synthesis heterology", i. e. its subordination not to the formal law "? -A", but to the meaningful "AB" (see G. Cohen, Logic of pure knowledge - N. Cohen, Logik der reinen Erkenntnis, 1902; P. Natorp, Logical foundations of exact sciences - R Natorp, Die logischen Grundlagen der exakten Wissenschaften, 1910). In neo-Hegelianism, the problem of L. d. Is also raised in connection with criticism of the tradition. the theory of abstractions: if the only function of thought is distraction, then "the more we think, the less we will know" (T. X. Green). Therefore, a new logic is needed, subordinated to the principle of the "integrity of consciousness": the mind, which carries the unconscious idea of ​​the whole, brings its frequent ideas into conformity with it by "complementing" the particular to the whole. Replacing the Hegelian principle of “negativity” with the principle of “complement”, neo-Hegelianism comes to a “negative dialectic”: the contradictions found in concepts indicate the unreality, “seeming” of their objects (see F. Bradley, Principles of Logic - F. Bradley, The principles of logic, 1928; his, Phenomenon and reality - Appearance and reality, 1893). Complementing this concept with the "theory of internal relations", which, while absolutizing the universal interconnection of phenomena, excludes the possibility of true statements about isolated fragments of reality, neo-Hegelianism slips into irrationalism, denies the rightful

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Introduction

1. Dialectical logic - formal logic: essence and difference

2. The structure of dialectical logic: principles, categories, laws

3. Logical-dialectical laws of development and substantiation of knowledge

Conclusion

Logical tasks

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Dialectical logic as a science was formed in the 19th century, when the accumulated mainly empirical material began to be synthesized into a system of knowledge, and the metaphysical method that dominated science became insufficient.

The greatest thinkers of the past tried to go beyond formal logic and create a logic that would meet the needs of the development of science. Hegel came closest to solving this problem. He essentially created dialectical logic. However, Hegel's dialectical logic could not become the logic of scientific knowledge, for it was built on an idealistic basis. The classics of Marxism-Leninism, from the standpoint of a dialectical-materialist worldview, created a dialectical logic that meets the needs of scientific knowledge.

What is dialectical logic as a science? There are different definitions of the subject of dialectical logic, each of which reveals a certain side of this science. However, almost all authors agree that dialectical logic is the science of the laws and forms of theoretical thinking.

The classics of Marxism-Leninism have always waged a decisive struggle against the Kantian understanding of logic as a set of a priori schemes that are filled with material from sensory data. They considered logical categories and forms of thought as a kind of reflection of objective reality, its laws and properties.

The purpose of this test work: consider and analyze the concept, structure and functions of dialectical logic; logical-dialectical laws of development and substantiation of knowledge.

1. DIALECTIC LOGIC - FORMAL LOGIC: COMMUNITY AND DIFFERENCE

Dialectical logic in its subject matter and method is a purely philosophical science. It not only examines the objective content of those forms of thinking that we call categories, but most importantly, clarifies the question of how, by enriching the content, one category passes into another, deepening the knowledge of the essence of objects. Dialectical logic is the doctrine of knowledge, of the philosophical comprehension of objective truth. It describes the process of cognition not of the real sphere of reality, but of an abstract object. The content of dialectical logic shows the dialectical method of philosophical knowledge in its purest, most general, abstract form.

The application of this method in scientific knowledge presupposes the presence of some subjective and objective prerequisites.

Subjectively, the use of the dialectical method is possible only on condition of mastering it. This is a very complex process, but, as F. Engels noted in his time, there is no other way to understand this method, except for the study of all previous philosophy. Simple knowledge of factual material from the field of the history of philosophy will never lead to the desired result.

Objectively, the dialectical method can be applied only when knowledge about a certain sphere of reality has reached theoretical maturity, when the specific laws of its existence are cognized and systematized in the form of grounded hypotheses or theories, when thus general scientific methods in this sphere of knowledge have exhausted their possibilities ... This method comes into force when the empirical material is processed by science into theoretical. After all, the immediate field of application of philosophy is not the object itself, but knowledge about it. Empirical science becomes a mediator between the object of its research and philosophy. The result of applying the philosophical method is a philosophical theory of a particular sphere of reality - the philosophy of nature, history, law, etc. Hegel called this science cognition in terms of understanding.

Another prerequisite for the application of the dialectical method is that it can be used in relation to objects that have reached a mature form in their development. Just as by the annual rings of a sawn tree, one can determine the diameter of the trunk in different years of its life, so by the structure of a mature object, one can find out the logic of its formation and development.

The dialectical method is not an arbitrary scheme that is forcibly imposed on the material. The essence of its application is that the researcher completely surrenders himself to the power of the object and, without introducing anything from himself into it, allows thinking to move independently in accordance with the objective logic of the movement of the object under study. Following the method may not be recognized by the researcher himself; at a certain stage in the development of knowledge, it becomes an objective necessity, an internal law of thinking. In this conscious or unconscious adherence to the method, a certain passivity of the researcher, his subordination to the objective logic of the subject, is manifested. This state is well known to mathematicians, because it is mathematical methods that are most adequate to the objects of this science.

There is an opinion of many scientists that any science achieves perfection if it manages to use mathematical methods. However, in philosophy, these methods do not work, since they do not correspond to its subject. Therefore, philosophy was forced to develop its own method, which is not inferior in severity to the mathematical; after all, the movement of forms of thinking in it coincides with the movement of objective content.

Let us explain this by the example of the study of human activity, the driving force of which is, as you know, need, defined as a lack of an organic system that prevents its normal existence and functioning. An organic system should be understood as such a system where each constituent element performs a function peculiar only to it. Examples of such systems, since we are talking about human activity, can be the following: an individual, a manufacturing enterprise, an army, a state, society as a whole, etc.

The need in itself will not lead to any activity, if it is not enriched by the desire for something, turning into a goal, supplemented by knowledge of the ways and means of achieving it. In this case, the goal turns into an idea, which, having connected through the means of activity with the object and having performed the necessary actions on it, becomes a product, or work. Thus, a product is a realized idea, or an achieved goal, or a need that has satisfied itself. A full cycle of activity ends with the production of a product. The need, changing its appearance, passes into the product.

An idea is knowledge ripe for realization. Objects of primordial nature are objective, material both in form and in content; thoughts are objective only in content, but subjective in form; the products of human activity, on the contrary, are material in form, but subjective, ideal in content, which is the materialized ideas of people. The totality of the products of human activity constitutes the second, humanized nature, or the objectified thinking of many generations. Therefore, the philosophical thesis that being is primary and thinking is secondary is nothing more than a primitive of the philosophy of naive realism.

The sequence of categories "need - goal - idea - product" captures not only the stages of development of the object under study, but also the stages of deepening knowledge about it. Each next category retains the previous one, enriching it with new content.

This simplified diagram presents the categorical skeleton of the theory of human action. And whoever wrote about it, he cannot ignore such a sequence of presentation of the material, because in the indicated scheme the objective logic of this process is clearly traced.

The foregoing allows us to conclude that it is necessary to talk about two sciences that study thinking as a tool of cognition - about formal logic and dialectical logic. Relating to one and the same object, each of these sciences distinguishes its own subject in it.

Formal logic examines the relationship between thoughts, expressed in stable, unchanging structures.

With all the variety of these structures, only two types of relations connect their elements:

1) between classes by belonging;

2) between statements by truth.

These relations form the logical foundation of thinking, and their members, or elements of formal structures, are classes and statements.

A class is understood as any combination of objects based on a common property. The linguistic forms of class expression are names, the semantic meaning of which is carried by concepts. A statement is understood as any thought expressed in a sentence, which can be either true or false.

According to the belonging of classes, the nature of relations does not change at all because these relations are sometimes interpreted meaningfully as relations between a thing and its properties, since a property uniquely defines a class of objects. For example, in the statement "Pike is a fish" the belonging of the class of pikes to the class of fish is recorded. The statement "Metals are electrically conductive" can be interpreted as an expression of the property of metals of electrical conductivity, which uniquely determines the class of electrically conductive substances. Therefore, in the second statement, the belonging of the class of metals to the class of electrically conductive substances is expressed.

It should be noted that traditionally in textbooks of logic, such relations are studied on the material of a living language. Such an approach is entirely justified: since these relations take place in thinking, it is necessary to show them in its living everyday functioning, the sphere of which is communication. This approach is called traditional formal logic.

From the previous it follows that formal and dialectical logic are independent, independent of one another, sciences that have different subjects of study. They are united by their common object of study - human thinking - and the common name - "logic".

2. STRUCTURE OF DIALECTIC LOGIC: PRINCIPLES, CATEGORIES, LAWS

Human thinking is a reflection of the surrounding world. The laws of this world determine the laws in accordance with which the process of thinking is carried out.

Logical laws, or laws of thinking, are thus objective, as a result of which they are general norms for all people.

A logical law is an essential connection between thoughts, conditioned by natural connections between objects and phenomena of the objective world.

The process of thinking proceeds according to logical laws, regardless of whether we know about their existence or not. Due to their objectivity, logical laws, like physical laws, cannot be violated, canceled or altered. However, due to their ignorance, a person can act contrary to the objective law, which will never lead to success. For example, if, ignoring the law of universal gravitation, you try to hang a chandelier without fixing it to the ceiling, it will surely fall and break. In the same way, reasoning that is not built in accordance with logical laws will not be evidence-based, and therefore will not lead to agreement in the dialogue.

Reasoning, built in accordance with logical laws, always leads to the truth, if its initial premises are true. These prerequisites themselves determine the scheme for constructing reasoning, the sequence of mental actions, the implementation of which will lead to the desired result. An illustrative example logical reasoning is solving a mathematical problem. Any such problem consists of a condition and a question to which you need to find an answer. The search for an answer presupposes the execution of mental operations on the initial data in a sequential order. The action of logical laws in this process is manifested in a sequence of mental operations, which is not arbitrary, but has a compulsory character for thinking.

There are many logical laws. Let's consider the most fundamental ones.

The law of identity requires that this or that thought, in whatever forms it is expressed, retain the same meaning. The law provides certainty and consistency in thinking.

According to the laws of consistency and the excluded third, we cannot simultaneously recognize two statements about an object as true if one of them asserts something about the object, and in the other it is denied. In this situation, at least one of the statements is objectively false. If a person thinks contrary to logical laws, his thinking becomes contradictory, illogical.

The law of sufficient reason requires that every thought has sufficient reason to be true.

On the basis of these most general laws, numerous laws of particular forms of reasoning are based, which in logic are called the rules of logic.

When thinking is indicated as the subject of logic, then it is assumed that thinking is a well-known subject, additional explanations regarding which there is no need to carry out. However, this may seem only at first glance.

Let's take the simple form of the sentence "A is B". If we replace A and B with the names of objects, we get a number of statements specific in terms of content: "Pine is a tree," "A student is a student," etc. What is the form of these sentences "A is B"? If it is not a thought, then what is thought in the sentences that we received by filling this form with content taken from outside? Is this external content itself - pines, students, trees, students? The listed items are not thoughts. The content of these names can be imagined figuratively, i.e. sensually.

Further. Does the form itself have some content? Answering in the negative, we contradict the well-known thesis that every form is meaningful, and the content is formalized. This means that the logical form itself has its characteristic internal, immanent content. The content of the form "A is B" can be conveyed as follows: every object A belongs to a certain kind of objects B. This position has only a mental content, there are no sensory images behind its words. This is, according to Hegel's definition, "pure" thought.

When we talk about the indifference of logic to content, we mean external content that enters consciousness through the senses and fills logical forms. Logic does not care what is meant by A and B. It examines the relationship between A and B, expressed by the link “is”. This relationship constitutes the immanent content of the reduced form.

Any mental content is based on this or that scheme of universal categories. It is easy to see that the content expressed in the statements "White snow", "Sweet sugar", "Cold ice" is based on the simplest scheme "thing - property", and in the statements "The door creaks", "The dog barks", "Rain goes "- another simple bundle of categories" object - action ". The content of the above statements is the familiar sensory material connected by invisible threads with "pure" thoughts. These "pure" thoughts constitute the categorical basis, or categorical apparatus of thinking, which is formed together with formal structures, or rather, together with the formation of personality. The activity of this apparatus is a special thinking, thinking about thoughts, thinking, which is a specific way of philosophical knowledge.

Universal categories are also called forms of thoughts, but they are not formal structures, but meaningful forms, i.e. forms of universal knowledge. These forms are present in the consciousness of every person, although most people use them unconsciously. Their separation from the various content of consciousness and awareness was accomplished in the process of the development of philosophy. Hegel very accurately defined the history of this science as the history of the discovery and study of thoughts about the absolute, which is its subject. The form of understanding categories as mental forms is philosophical knowledge. Later, their content and relationships become the subject of a proper philosophical theory - dialectics, or dialectical logic. The assertions widespread among philosophers and logicians that dialectical logic supposedly studies the same forms of thinking as formal logic, only the second considers them as stable, immovable, and the first as mobile, developing, have no justification. Formal structures of thought were formed long before any logic arose, and have remained unchanged since then.

Unlike formal logic, dialectical logic is a meaningful science that studies the content of universal categories, their systemic interconnection, the transition from one category to another by enriching the content. In this way, dialectical logic depicts the progressive movement of cognition along the path of comprehending objective truth.

The role of categories in cognition consists in the ordering and organization of the infinitely diverse sensory material, in its synthesis and generalization. If this did not happen, a person would not be able to identify two perceptions of the same object, scattered in time. Being filled with categories, being absorbed by them, the external material from sensory turns into mental, formed into linguistic constructions. Therefore, everything that is expressed in a language, explicitly or implicitly, contains a certain category. This was noted by Aristotle, saying that of the words expressed without any connection, each denotes either essence, or quality, or quantity, or relation, or place, or time, or position, or possession, or action, or suffering.

The material delivered by the senses is content that has spatial and temporal characteristics. This content belongs to finite, transitory things that exist in space and time. Thoughts, including categories, are devoid of spatio-temporal characteristics, because they have an absolute, eternal, unchanging content inherent in objects of any nature and constituting the basis of their existence. This content becomes the subject of study of dialectical logic, or philosophy itself as a science. Therefore, dialectical logic is a science of both reality and the laws of thinking. Its subject is not thinking and not reality in themselves, but their unity, i.e. subject in which they are identical. The content, which constitutes the universal basis of all reality, is accessible not to sensory perception, but to understanding through thinking. Reflection of this essential content is a process of gradual penetration into the deep nature of things.

"Filling" a logical form with external content should be understood as the processing of sensory material with "pure" thought, the products of which are thoughts about specific objects, phenomena, actions, etc. In any content of consciousness - feelings, sensations, perceptions, desires, ideas, etc. - a thought penetrates if this content is expressed in language. This all-pervading thinking is the foundation of consciousness.

Thinking as an instrument of intellectual activity must be distinguished from the activity of this instrument and its products. This process, roughly speaking, consists in "processing" the material supplied by the senses, transforming it into thoughts, as well as in the production of new thoughts from existing ones. For example, the content of the thought “I’m having fun” is the feeling, the thought “An ambulance has come to the entrance” is the perception of the objective situation, the thought “The salary is only a part of the produced value” is the ratio of economic concepts, and the statements “Since the essence exists, then existence there is a phenomenon "- the relationship of the philosophical categories" essence "," existence "," phenomenon ".

Exploring thinking from the formal side, formal logic is forced to abstract from its "content" structure. The following examples will help you understand what this structure is.

Consider the statements: "I need an ax to chop wood chunks for firewood" and "I need a sewing machine to sew a napkin out of cloth." The identity of the formal structure of the thoughts expressed in these sentences is obvious. By replacing linguistic expressions with alphabetic symbols, it can be represented in the following form: "X is needed by Y in order to produce P from T". Letter designations can be replaced here not by any expressions, but only by the names of objects. The logic does not establish the names of which items are allowed to be substituted for literal variables. In the forms that formal logic explores, only connections (relations) between elements within a logical structure are meaningfully interpreted. The elements themselves are considered as empty cells filled with material taken from the outside.

The similarity of the above statements is not limited only to their formal generality, to the generality of their grammatical constructions. Their thematic commonality is also obvious. Sentences of a similar construction are used to describe one or another expedient activity. Therefore, in their deep basis there is a certain general content, constituted by a categorical structure, which in our examples is reduced to the interconnection of the following concepts:

subject of activity (s);

object of activity (wood chocks, fabric);

a means of operation (ax, sewing machine);

the activity itself (stabbing, sewing);

product of activity (firewood, napkin), which simultaneously expresses both its purpose and need.

The listed concepts constitute the categorical apparatus of theoretical knowledge of human activity.

Each science, when describing its objects, operates with specific concepts peculiar only to it. In mechanics, for example, it is “force”, “speed”, “mass”, “acceleration”, etc., in logic - “name”, “statement”, “inference”. The most general concepts of a certain science are called categories, and their totality is called the categorical apparatus of this science.

Thinking is based on universal categories, which by their content absorb (encompass) objects of any nature, including specific categories of specific sciences. These include, for example, the categories being, quality, quantity, thing, property, relation, essence, phenomenon, form, content, action, etc.

Thus, universal philosophical categories (categories of dialectics) are mental definitions of an object, the synthesis of which expresses its essence and constitutes the concept of it.

3. LOGIC - DIALECTIC FRAMEWORK OF DEVELOPMENT AND JUSTIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE

dialectical logic law knowledge

Dialectical thinking is subject in its functioning and development to the basic laws of dialectics. Thus, the law of the unity and struggle of opposites, being the law of the development of being, at the same time manifests itself in thinking. The development, improvement of our knowledge about the surrounding reality is carried out through overcoming the contradictions that constantly arise between the thinking subject and the developing cognizable object.

Since all material objects are internally contradictory, then our concepts, judgments, being a reflection of these objects, inevitably contain contradictions. But these are not formal logical, but dialectical contradictions, and therefore they do not cause any disruption of consistency in thinking. The dialectically contradictory nature of concepts, judgments and other forms of thinking not only does not prevent them from correctly reflecting the material world, but, on the contrary, contributes to this.

An important place in the process of dialectical thinking and cognition is occupied by the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa. All the most important scientific discoveries of the 19th and 20th centuries. irrefutably testify that only the dialectical concept of development in cognitive thinking is capable of providing deep scientific knowledge, for the development of the objective world itself takes place dialectically in the form of the transition of gradual, quantitative changes into rapid, radical qualitative changes. This was confirmed by such scientific discoveries of the 19th century as the law of conservation and transformation of matter and energy, the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin, periodic law Mendeleev, etc.

Mendeleev's periodic table of elements shows that, relying on the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, we get the opportunity not only to know objects known to us, but also to predict the existence of still unknown objects and even foresee their most important properties.

The movement of cognitive thinking from logical processing of facts and generalization of empirical material to obtaining new knowledge, to scientific discovery is made on the basis of the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones. Every scientific discovery is essentially a leap in the process of cognition. And it does not happen by chance, but as a result of a long, gradual evolutionary preparation.

The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones as the law of dialectical logic obliges us, on the one hand, to take into account the flexibility, mobility, dialectical fluidity of objects and their reflections in concepts, and on the other hand, to keep in mind the qualitative definiteness, the relative stability of objects and the concepts reflecting them. ...

An important logical and methodological principle arising from the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones is the requirement not to absolutize either the quantitative or the qualitative approach to the object under study, but to dialectically combine them. The importance of this principle is especially evident when a qualitative approach to the phenomenon under study is reasonably combined with mathematical processing of the data obtained. The use of mathematical methods of cognition, especially the formalization method, the axiomatic method, etc., significantly increases the efficiency of cognition, allows one to reveal such aspects, features and properties of the object under study that cannot be detected with a qualitative approach to the object under study.

The law of denial of negation, being the law of the development of being, just like the previous two laws, is the law of dialectical thinking. The significance of this law in the development and functioning of thinking lies in the fact that it aims the researcher at understanding the object as progressively developing, allows him to explain deviations towards regression that occur in the course of progressive development, to reveal the cause of these deviations, to reveal the relationship between the old and the new in development, their organic connection, to learn how the new grows out of the old, why the new can arise and develop only on the basis of the existing, why continuity between the new and the old is necessary both in cognition and in the practical activities of people.

The operation of the law of negation of negation in cognition is well revealed when considering the historical course of cognition. Finding out the ways and methods of cognizing the world around us, we see that cognition as a historical process, in essence, is a continuous and endless sequence of negation of some positions accepted by science and the emergence of other theoretical positions, in which objects of the material world are reflected more accurately and more correctly. This denial does not have to be complete (although such denial is not excluded), but usually in the course of the development of science and social practice, there is a partial denial of old theoretical propositions in the form of their clarification, correction or supplementing them with new provisions.

In dialectics, to deny this or that theoretical conclusion does not mean to declare it false and reject it. Denial of the previous stage in the development of a theory means here its development, improvement, transition to a deeper level of cognition of reality.

The action of the laws of dialectics is especially well traced when considering such categories of dialectical logic as concrete and abstract, individual and general, essence and phenomenon, etc.

Indeed, if the process of cognition proceeds from the concrete to the abstract and from the abstract again to the concrete, or, respectively, from the individual to the general and from the general to the individual, then this means that cognition is carried out according to the law of negation of negation. This can be seen from the fact that the transition from the concrete to the abstract in the course of cognition (or from the individual to the general) is nothing more than the negation of the concrete (or the individual), and the transition from the abstract again to the concrete (or general) in the course of further cognition is a negation of the abstract (or general), that is, the negation of negation and, as it were, a return to the past, to the concrete (or singular), but on a higher basis, when this concrete is already enriched with general concepts, definitions, etc.

The process of cognition also differs by the same regularity during its transition from phenomenon to essence and from essence again to phenomenon. After all, the process of cognition always ultimately begins with a phenomenon, with a consideration and study of what we perceive sensually. On the basis of the material of sensory cognition in the course of abstract thinking, the researcher comprehends the essence of the studied subject. But, having cognized the essence of the subject, the researcher again returns to the phenomenon, to the studied subject itself, in order to compare the obtained data about the essence of the subject with the phenomenon, with what we perceive sensually. By such a comparison, we achieve a deeper knowledge of the subject, for the essence of objects is always manifested through a phenomenon, and by comparing them, we clarify both. Thus, here, too, in the course of cognition, there is, as it were, a return to the old, to the phenomenon, but this is not a simple repetition, but a return to the old on a deeper basis, when the essence of the phenomenon under study has already been revealed.

Consequently, the law of negation of negation, like other laws of materialist dialectics, plays a large role in dialectical thinking, lies at the basis of the process of cognition. Materialist dialectics deals not only with the considered basic laws, but also with a whole series of other laws, in particular, expressed in the correlation of the so-called paired categories (essence and phenomenon, form and content, necessity and chance, etc.).

Cognitive dialectical thinking is also subject to specific laws of cognition, which, although they are formed on the basis of the laws of objective reality, are not their direct, direct reflection. We mean such patterns that express the connections between absolute and relative truth, concrete and abstract, sensual and logical, - patterns that characterize the concreteness of truth, methods and forms of knowing thinking, etc.

Thus, dialectical logic in the process of cognition deals with laws of two types: the laws of dialectics and special laws of the functioning and development of cognition.

CONCLUSION

Thus, dialectical logic is the doctrine of knowledge, of the philosophical comprehension of objective truth. It describes the process of cognition not of the real sphere of reality, but of an abstract object. The content of dialectical logic shows the dialectical method of philosophical knowledge in its purest, most general, abstract form. Formal logic examines the relationship between thoughts, expressed in stable, unchanging structures.

The process of thinking proceeds according to logical laws, regardless of whether we know about their existence or not. Due to their objectivity, logical laws, like physical laws, cannot be violated, canceled or altered.

Formal and dialectical logic are independent, independent of one another sciences, which have different subjects of study. They are united by their common object of study - human thinking - and the common name - "logic".

LOGICAL TASKS

Problem number 1. Build direct inferences by opposing the predicate from the following premises: students are students; every lawyer has a legal education; pyramids are not flat geometric shapes.

Students are learners - No non-student is a student.

Every lawyer has a legal education - Not a single lawyer has a legal education.

Pyramids are not flat geometric shapes - Some non-flat geometric pyramid shapes.

Problem number 2. Relying on the law of consistency and the “logical square” scheme, establish whether the following pairs of statements can be true at the same time: “Some gases are inert - some gases are not inert”; "Aristotle is the founder of logic - Aristotle is not the founder of logic"; "All numbers are even - no number is even"; "Some dictatorial regimes are democratic - no dictatorial regime is democratic"

Consistency of thinking is an indispensable condition for true knowledge and effective communication. The essence of this condition is revealed in the formal-logical law of contradiction. In its most general form, its requirements are reduced to the following: two statements in relation to incompatibility cannot be simultaneously true. The law of contradiction reflects the impossibility of the joint truth of such statements.

"Some gases are inert - some gases are not inert." This pair of statements can be true at the same time, because from the truth of the statement "a accepts that p" follows the truth of the statement "a assumes that p"

"Aristotle is the founder of logic - Aristotle is not the founder of logic." This pair of statements cannot be true at the same time, because "A accepts that p" and "a rejects that p".

"All numbers are even - no number is even." This pair of statements also cannot be true at the same time, because "A accepts that p" and "a rejects that p".

"Some dictatorial regimes are democratic - no dictatorial regime is democratic." This pair of statements is not at the same time true, because "A admits that p" and "a rejects that p".

Problem number 3. Refute the following provisions by proving the antithesis:

a) all Russian painters of the 19th century adhered to the canons of classicism;

b) not a single Russian painter of the 19th century adhered to the canons of classicism.

a) All Russian painters of the 19th century adhered to the canons of classicism. Here it is enough to prove the antithesis "Some Russian painters of the nineteenth century did not adhere to the canons of classicism." The truth of the latter follows from the statement "Kiprensky did not adhere to the canons of classicism."

b) Not a single Russian painter of the 19th century adhered to the canons of classicism. Here it is enough to prove the antithesis "Some Russian painters of the nineteenth century adhered to the canons of classicism." The truth of the latter follows from the statement "Shebuev adhered to the canons of classicism."

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Barton V.I. Logics. - Minsk: LLC "New knowledge", 2001

2. Dialectical Logic / Ed. Z.M. Orudzhev, A.P. Sheptulina. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow. University, 1986

3. Ivanov E.A. Logics. - M .: Publishing house BEK, 1996

4. Logic / Under total. ed. V.F. Berkova. - Mn .: Vysh. school, 1994

5. Malykhina G.I. Logics. - Mn .: Vysh. school, 2005

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Dialectical logic

the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thinking. These laws are reflected in the form of general concepts - categories (see Categories). Therefore, D. l. can also be defined as the science of dialectical categories. Representing a system of dialectical categories, it explores their interconnection, sequence and transitions from one category to another. In the system of Marxist-Leninist philosophy, D. l. coincides with dialectics (see. Dialectics) and the theory of knowledge, with dialectical materialism. In this sense, D. l. "... there is a doctrine not about external forms of thinking, but about the laws of development of" all material, natural and spiritual things, "that is, ... the total, sum, conclusion of the history of knowledge of the world" (Lenin V. I. collection of works, 5th ed., v. 29, p. 84). Inherent in D. l. consideration of all objects and phenomena in their interdependence, all-round connections and mediations, in their development, history characterizes the approach of D. l. to the study of human thinking and its categories. D. l. is the result of a generalization of the entire history of human knowledge.

D. l. proceeds from a materialistic solution to the main question of philosophy (see. The main question of philosophy), considering thinking as a reflection of objective reality. This understanding was opposed and opposed by the idealistic conceptions of dialectical literature, based on the idea of ​​thinking as an independent sphere that does not depend on the objective world.

D.L.'s problem. is that, relying on a generalization of the history of philosophy, the history of all individual sciences, the history of the mental development of the child, the history of the mental development of animals, the history of language, psychology, physiology of the senses, technical and artistic creativity, to explore the logical forms and laws of scientific knowledge, methods constructions and patterns of development of scientific theory, to identify ways of correlating knowledge with its object, etc. An important task of D. l. is the analysis of the historically established methods of scientific knowledge and the identification of the heuristic capabilities of a particular method, the boundaries of its application and the possibility of learning new methods.

D. l. significantly differs from formal logic, mathematical logic, which, using the method of formalization, explore the forms of thinking in abstraction from its content and the historical development of knowledge in its contradictions. D. l. how logic analyzes the dialectical contradictions of things and thoughts in the process of the development of cognition, acting as a scientific method of cognizing both being and thinking itself. See in Art. Dialectical materialism.

Lit .: Lenin V.I., philosophical notebooks, Poln. collection cit., 5th ed., v. 29; Bibler VS, On the system of categories of dialectical logic, Stalinabad, 1958; Rosenthal MM, Principles of dialectical logic, M., 1960; Kopnin P.V., Dialectics as logic, K., 1961; G.S. Batishchev, Contradiction as a category of dialectical logic, M., 1963; Naumenko LK, Monism as a principle of dialectical logic, A.-A., 1968; see also lit. to Art. Dialectics, Dialectical Materialism.

A.G. Novikov.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Dialectical logic" is in other dictionaries:

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See DIALECTIC LOGIC. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009 ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

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The name of a philosophical theory that tried to identify, systematize and substantiate as universal the main features of the thinking of a collectivist society (medieval feudal society, totalitarian society, etc.). Basic… … Glossary of Logic Terms

DIALECTIC LOGIC- the science of thinking, capable of reflecting the dialectics of nature and society in cognition; studies thinking in its development, contradictions and unity of form and content ... Professional education... Dictionary

DIALECTIC LOGIC- (dialectic logic) see Dialectics ... Comprehensive explanatory sociological dictionary

DIALECTIC LOGIC (MATERIALIST LOGIC)- English. logic, dialectical (materialist); German Logik, dialektische (mate rialistische). Science that studies the forms, content, patterns of history. development of thinking, its relationship with objective reality and with the practical activity of a person ... Explanatory Dictionary of Sociology

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See in Art. Dialectics. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M .: Soviet encyclopedia. Ch. edited by L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983. DIALECTIC LOGIC ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Books

• Dialectical logic. Essays on history and theory, E. V. Ilyenkov. The book of the famous Russian philosopher E. V. Ilyenkov examines the most important, including debatable, issues of the theory of materialist dialectics, dialectical logic, history ...