Water mills of the north-east of the Moscow region in the XVI-XVII centuries. Windmills and watermills of the Ryazan province XIX-XX centuries Zaval village. Novgorod region

Page 1

The retrospective study is focused on identifying the territorial organization of renewable energy in the Ryazan (province) region. The main accents are defined in the field of socio-economic factors that predetermined the quantitative and qualitative changes in the potential of hydraulic and windmills and "territorial shifts" in their location. The work takes into account the modifications of the region in the course of administrative reforms in the 20th century (Fig. 1).

An analysis of the figure shows that the transformation of boundaries has important geographical consequences. Previously, the Ryazan province had a greater extent from north to south than from west to east, which ensured a greater variety of natural conditions and contributed to a pronounced differentiation of the territory into the agricultural south (Stepnaya side), a mixed economy zone in the central part (Ryazan side) and industrialized north (Meshcherskaya side). At the same time, the provincial city of Ryazan most corresponded to the requirement of its (optimum) central position in relation to the province as a whole.

In general, as a result of administrative reforms, the region somewhat "shifted" to the east and at the same time "shrunk" to the conventional center, that is, it became relatively more "eastern". Despite some "increment" of the Ryazan region at the expense of other regions, the "exchange" was not qualitatively equivalent, since the most industrially developed and agrarian-significant territories were transferred to other regions.

The use of wind and water mills in the Ryazan province (XIX century). During the period under review, in the Russian Empire, steam engines and technologies based on them were only coming into use and, despite the “railway boom” and the general replenishment of the engine fleet, the energy basis of agricultural production has changed little. Thus, the historical period was still going on, when the muscular strength of draft animals, water and wind wheels were almost the only means of power drive of mechanisms in agriculture.

Rice. 1. Changes in the administrative-territorial boundaries of the Ryazan province (region) in the 19th century.

1. Territories that left the Ryazan province (region).

2. Territories included in the Ryazan province (region).

1922 - the year of entry and exit of the territory into (from) the composition of (a) the province (region).

In the Ryazan province, the energy of rivers was also widely used in industry, especially in metallurgy for the power drive of mechanical hammers and machine tools.

However, due to the dominance of the agricultural sector, a larger economic use of wind and river energy resources was characteristic of the flour milling industry (Table 1, Fig. 2).

Table 1

Placement of mills in the counties of the Ryazan province in 1860

Number of windmills

From the end of the 20th century in a number of countries there is an active use of wind energy for economic purposes. To assess the potential of wind energy, a study was made of the features of its use in the Tver province in the 19th century.

The regions of the North-West of Russia are of great importance in the history and culture of our country. A large number of historical, cultural and natural landscape monuments, scientific and industrial centers are concentrated in the North-West, reflecting the richness and diversity of Russian civilization.

According to the dissertation of I.A. Hare for 1847. in the Tver province, with a population of 1340 thousand, there were 611 water and 1312 windmills. From the historical, geographical and local lore positions, it is of interest to localize the location of such a large number of objects. Information about the location and, accordingly, the number of mills is contained on large-scale archival maps.

In the 19th century, in the process of transition from general survey plans to topographic maps, large-scale maps in a part of the Tver province are represented by one- and two-verte topographic survey maps surveyed by A.I. Mende (Mendt). These maps are a unique cartographic work, because. work on the correction of provincial atlases was started in the Tver province, completed most fully and, accordingly, the maps present the largest amount of information. When creating maps of the next 7 provinces, the work gradually decreased in volume.

During the research, information was analyzed both on windmills and on watermills.

The initial data for conducting research to determine the location of the mills were:

Large-scale archival maps of the Tver province, 1853;

Statistical data for the Tver province;

Modern maps and spatial data.

For the Tver province, as part of the work on shooting A.I. Mende, one- (1: 42000) and two-verst (1: 84000) topographic boundary maps were created.

According to the two-verst map, a set of raster electronic maps was previously created in the formats: GIS MapInfo, Global Mapper, as well as an Internet resource in the formats: Google Maps tiles with access through the CAS. Planet program (URL:) and Internet browser (URL:), as well as in the format of the electronic globe Google Earth (URL: http://www.google.com/intl/en/earth/index.html) with access through the appropriate program Google Planet.Earth and an Internet browser.

An assessment was made of the equally informative one-verst and two-verst maps in terms of data on mills. On fig. 1 shows an example of a group arrangement of mills near the villages of the Bezhetsky district. At the village Old Gvozdevo shows 10 mills, near the village. Prokino 7, near the village. Grudino 4. The analysis shows the coincidence of the number and location of mills on maps of different scales. Accordingly, subsequent results obtained from a two-verst map should not differ significantly from the data from a one-verst map.

In the process of research on a two-verst map, vector layers of the position of windmills and watermills for the Tver province were formed.

Taking into account the fact that this map is large-scale, and the territory is significant, the use of a single raster electronic map for the entire province in a professional GIS (MapInfo) turned out to be difficult due to the requirements of large amounts of memory. This circumstance greatly slowed down the work of the GIS program during the operations of moving, scaling, editing the map.

To increase the speed of creating vector layers, it was proposed to use the Google Maps tile format (URL: http://support.google.com/maps/?hl=en) a raster electronic map and the SAS.Planet program. The small sizes of tiles (blocks) of a raster map (256x256 pixels), the presence of pre-calculated blocks for different scales and the automatic mode of loading the necessary tiles allow you to quickly navigate the map with scaling and drawing point objects, regardless of the size and detail of the map. Approbation of this approach also pursued the goal of evaluating the possibility of its practical application in other studies.

Vectorization results imported into MapInfo GIS are shown in fig. 2 - windmills and in fig. 3. - water mills.

The SAS.Planet program functionally allows you to apply and edit point, line and area objects, as well as signatures. In this case, archival and modern maps, space and aerial photographs from various sources (http://google.ru, http://yandex.ru, http://kosmosnimki.ru, etc.) can be used. In this case, objects can be placed on different layers. For layers and individual objects, it is possible to set a visualization attribute.

For selected layers and individual objects, the function of exporting to the kml format ( Keyhole markup language, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KML).

In the interests of the possibility of a consistent presentation of the archive map of the Tver province together with cartographic materials from other sources, a tiled electronic map for it was implemented in the WGS-84 Latitude-Longitude projection.

Rice. 2. Distribution of windmills in the Tver province

Rice. 3. Distribution of water mills in the Tver province

Next, the kml format of the vector layers of water and windmills was first converted to the mif/mid format of the MapInfo GIS, imported into it, and then transformed into the Gauss-Kruger projection of Pulkovo-42, 6th zone.

In the part shown in Fig. The 2 distributions of windmills include the following:

The largest number is in the northeastern part of the Bezhetsky district;

A significant number in the southeastern part of Vesyegonsk, southwestern Kashinsky, the central part of Vyshnevolotsk, the eastern part of Torzhok, southwestern Tver, southern Rzhevsky counties;

A small number in the Ostashkovsky district.

After comparing the location of windmills and the matrix of elevations of the area, it was noted that their largest accumulation is located in the western and northern parts of the Sonkovskaya Upland.

In terms of water mills, shown in fig. 3, it can be noted:

A large number in the northern and eastern parts of Vyshnevolotsky, Torzhoksky, Ostashkovsky counties;

A small number in Tver and Kalyazinsky counties.

To assess the various objective reasons for the significantly different number of mills by county, a comparison was made of the number of mills, the areas sown with grain and the harvested crop.

The table presents data on the number of mills in the districts of the Tver province, the area of ​​arable land (thousand square acres), the amount of arable land per one revision per capita (square acres), the volume of grain harvested.

Analysis of these data shows:

The number of mills by county significantly exceeds their number according to the map;

The amount of arable land (tithes) per male soul is not strong (minimum - 2.5 in Bezhetsky, Tverskoy; maximum - 3.3 in V. Volotsky; differ by 32% from the minimum) differs by counties;

The arable area differs significantly by counties (minimum - 111.2 in Tverskoy; maximum - 199.8 in Bezhetsky; differ by 80% from the minimum);

The grain harvest varies significantly by county (minimum - 59.9 in Rzhevsky; maximum - 597.7 in Bezhetsky; differ by 898% from the minimum).

List of the number of mills by county for 1847.

Rice. 4. Comparison of arable land, number of mills and yield

Rice. 5. Number of windmills and watermills

The smaller number of mills shown on the map can be explained by not all mills being mapped.

A county-by-country comparison of the number of mills with arable land and yield in the form of a diagram is shown in fig. 4. Shown here is the total number of windmills and watermills. The diagram shows the dependence of the number of mills and productivity, which can serve as one of the explanatory factors for the large number of mills in the Bezhetsk district.

A comparison of the number of water and windmills by counties is shown in the form of a diagram in fig. five.

We can assume the functional complementarity of windmills and watermills and, accordingly, a small number of watermills in the presence of a significant number of windmills.

Despite the smaller number of mills presented on the survey map by A.I. Mende, data on their distribution over the area of ​​the province and a specific location are of undoubted interest not only for geographers, but also for historians, local historians, and museum workers. In particular, the proposed automated public approach to the formation and use of an Internet resource with archival large-scale maps of the 19th century. as a source of data on the location of windmills and watermills aroused practical interest at the 6th All-Russian Local History Readings (URL: ) and at the Russian-Dutch Seminar on the Problems of Studying, Reconstruction and Museumification of Historical Mills in the New Jerusalem Museum (URL: ).

The proposed approach for the use of large-scale archival cartographic works of the Tver province in the study of wind and water mills of the 19th century. can be developed in the following areas:

Study of the distribution of mills on the territory of the Tver region using already formed Internet resources based on military topographic maps of the 19th century. to adjacent provinces, whose territories are now part of the Tver region;

A study of the distribution of mills on topographic survey maps by A.I. Mende of other provinces (Internet resources for Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod and Simbirsk have already been formed; for Yaroslavl, Ryazan, Tambov, Penza in the formation stage);

Study of the distribution of mills in Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, the Baltic states, Poland using the created Internet resource on a three-verst military topographic map of European Russia in the 19th century;

Formation of a target Internet resource with the presentation of generalized data on the location of mills in the 19th century. based on large-scale archival maps.

Thus, in the studies carried out on the basis of a large-scale topographic boundary map of the Tver province of 1853. and a complex of GIS technologies using electronic maps in raster and vector formats, various projections, an approach was proposed and practically tested for studying the distributions of windmills and watermills according to the data of the 19th century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Web cartography and navigation. Two-verst topographic boundary map of the Tver province, 1853. [Electronic resource] // - Access mode: - 12.06.2012.
2. Hare I.A. Water and windmills of the northwestern region of Russia. History and prospects for conservation. Abstract of the dissertation of SpbGASU. St. Petersburg, 2007.
3. Processing and presentation of archival maps [Electronic resource] // - Access mode: - 12.06.2012.
4. Commemorative book of the Tver province for 1868. Edition of the Tver Provincial Statistical Committee. Tver, 1868
5. Preobrazhensky V.A. Description of the Tver province in agricultural terms. St. Petersburg. Printing house of the Ministry of State Property, 1854.
6. Collection of materials for statistics of the Tver province, compiled, on behalf of the Tver Provincial Zemsky Assembly, by V. Pokrovsky, Issue IV, Tver, 1877.
7. Shchekotilova M.V. The use of wind energy in the Tver province according to the data of the 19th century. Materials of interuniversity scientific conference. "Geography, geoecology, tourism: scientific search for students and graduate students". TVGU, Tver, .2012, pp.74-77 .

There are already a lot of photo stories about a wide variety of mills on my blog, but there are not so many water mills among them. So today's post is about that. The mill is located on the outskirts of the village of Krasnikovo, Kursk region, on the river Nagolnensky Kolodez. By the way, in the network this river is often called the Hook (less often - the Broad Stream). I will assume that this is most likely an outdated local hydronym, since on all maps the river is called exactly Nagolnensky Kolodez or Nagolnensky Well. In addition, the Kursk media circulated the version that this is the only surviving mill of this type in the Black Earth region, but this is also not true. But not the point. I visited Krasnikovo back in May, so on the eve of the golden autumn, I decided today to please readers with pictures of fresh spring greenery.

02 . Just a few years ago, despite the fact that in 2003, on the recommendation of the Ministry of Culture, by a decree of the governor of the Kursk region, the Krasnikovskaya mill was included in the unified state register of historical and cultural monuments of the peoples of the Russian Federation, it was in a terrible state and was simply dangerous to visit due to for extreme dilapidation. In 2013, the mill was restored (the frame of the mill was moved and the foundation was strengthened), a pond was cleared, a gazebo for relaxation was installed and a wicker fence was made. In 2014, additional work was carried out to improve the surrounding area, as well as an asphalt road with a parking space and a toilet. 4.7 million rubles were allocated for these purposes.

03 . General view of the tourist complex (let's call it that) as of May 2015. Let me explain about some chaos in the foreground. These are stumps of trees cut down at the stage of reconstruction. I do not presume to judge whether this decision was correct or hasty, since I personally did not see the mill surrounded by old elms. There are old pictures of the place on the net, it seems not bad, but now it’s how it is. Now, meetings of local veterans are held near the mill, graduates of the local school come to meet the dawn, tourists come, and life in general is in full swing.

04 . The mill was built in 1861 by the local landowner Glazov, about whom almost no information has been preserved. But it was in the "Glazov times" that a dam on the river was organized and two dozen piles of bog oak were driven in, on which the mill still stands. And a certain Foma Ignatievich Tetyanets worked as a farm laborer for this Glazov, who eventually became the new owner of the Glazov mill. There are two legends about this in the village. According to one of them, the landowner, having sensed the coming changes in 1917, simply sold his property and went abroad, and according to another, Thomas got the mill as a dowry, because he had the audacity to knock up the landowner's daughter Sophia right in it.

05 . One way or another, after the revolution, the mill passed into the possession of the collective farm "40 years of October", and the newlyweds went to relatives in Voronezh. An amazing thing, but at the beginning of the 2000s, the then ninety-year-old son of Foma and Sophia, Stepan Fomich Tetyanets, came to Krasnikovo from near Samara and said that he and his parents remembered their mill with warmth all their lives.

06 . In 1960, Yegor Ivanovich Krasnikov was appointed miller, and under his leadership, the mill continued to supply Krasnin residents with amazingly ground flour. Until the seventies of the last century, there was also a grain mill at the mill, but as people stopped sowing millet and buckwheat in the gardens, and they began to buy cereals in the general store, they removed it as unnecessary. But the demand for flour still persisted. In the nineties, the collective farm ordered to live long, but the head of the organized agricultural enterprise regularly paid the miller 550 rubles of salary. And for grinding one bag from the peasants they took 7 rubles.

07 . Under Krasnikov, its old old mill wheel became obsolete, but was soon replaced with a metal one and the mill started working again (at the reconstruction stage it was replaced again with a wooden one). The log house of the building was also repeatedly updated, but the mechanism itself, they say, is the same - Glazovsky. The mill produced up to a ton of flour per day.

08 . Later, when the flow of beggars from nearby villages and villages dried up, and the miller himself turned 77 years old, he was appointed a museum worker, but soon there was no strength left to look after the condition of the mill and it began to suddenly deteriorate. Well, then you already know everything. In the photo, the updated so-called. running chest.

09 . In conclusion, a few of my own thoughts about what I saw. I understand that in our time the amount of 5 million is a mere trifle, especially when you consider that half a kilometer of an asphalt road was brought to the mill, but in some places I got the impression of some kind of, so to speak, negligence. I saw the reconstructed mills in Kenozerye and they look completely different from the photo below (I will show you in the very near future). In addition, the building of the mill was fenced with a chain-link fence (seen in photo 04), which does not paint it at all, but forces tourists to somehow overcome it.

However, knowing the situation with the mills of the native Voronezh region, we can say that the Krasnikovskaya mill was incredibly lucky. They didn't even bother to hang our windmills with formidable signs, not to mention any reconstructions or repairs. Who knows whether they will survive this winter or not, and therefore I congratulate the people of Kursk on the fact that such a wonderful historical monument has been preserved in their region!

The use of my photos in any media, printed materials and on any sites, except for personal blogs and pages on social networks, is PROHIBITED. Only after

Windmill(Russia, Ryazan region, Shatsky district, Polnoe Konobeevo village)

As an architect who has worked in the industry for more than 10 years, I am always interested in various engineering structures, so I do not ignore bridges, cooling towers, dams, dams, etc. Do not leave me indifferent and such "not cunning" by modern standards of construction as wind (water) mills, preserved mainly in museums-reserves (Suzdal, Kostroma, Pushkin mountains). Quite rarely, but still there are windmills in the vastness of Russia, however, their condition is most often depressing, for example, in the villages of Kirovo, Kurovo, Krugloye, Bryansk region. When preparing a trip to the Ryazan region, I accidentally stumbled upon a well-preserved mill in the village. Polnoe Konobeevo near Shatsk. So this agricultural object appeared in my route (which turned out to be very useful, because our path ran a little further - to the estate of Bykov Gora Naryshkins and the Vyshetsky Convent.

I bring to your attention an excerpt from a historical essay about a mill in Polny Konobeevo by local historian A.N. Potapova: “At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 250,000 windmills in Russia, which were especially widely used in the steppe regions rich in grain and grinded half of all the grain collected in the country. In the Shatsk district, which until 1923 was part of the Tambov province, by 1884 there were 108 windmills, including seven in the Polno-Konobeevsky volost. A windmill in those years was an integral part of the rural landscape. In all large villages, along with the church, the mill dominated the surroundings, since it was usually placed on a hillock, in a place open to all winds (and therefore to eyes). It is not known for certain when the Polno-Konobeevsky mill was built, but the old-timers of the village said that it had been working since the middle of the 19th century. There was a similar mill in Lesnoy Konobeev, on the other side of Tsna. But once, during a fire, it flared up, and no matter how hard they tried to quench the flame, it almost completely burned out. For a long time, a black skeleton towered near the village cemetery, then it was dismantled.
And the mill in Polny Konobeevo served the people for many years. From time to time, the windmill was repaired: the plank sheathing, log shafts, worn out oak gears were changed - and the mill again began to rotate its wings, and rye flour flowed from under the millstones in a warm stream ... I remember how we children, playing nearby, looked at the mill . The miller's uncle Kostya Berdyanov, all white with flour dust, seemed to us either Santa Claus, or a kind sorcerer from a fairy tale. The wings of the windmill creaked under the pressure of the wind. Huge stone millstones slowly, with noise and roar, rotated and, like the jaws of a prehistoric animal, grinded the grain with a crunch. A mysterious staircase led up to the tower. Toothed gears, shafts - everything was made of wood by rural craftsmen. Capacious scoops for pouring flour from the bin into the sack were also made of wood - linden. From time to time carts drove up to the mill. The collective farmers loaded the bags into carts and took them to the farm, where the feed flour was stirred in warm water and fed to the calves with this hearty "talker".
In those years, a bakery operated in the village, located in an old brick house, which before the revolution belonged to the priest of the local church. Sometimes the villagers did not buy bread in the store, but here - from the heat, from the heat. I also liked buying bread at the bakery. A loaf just taken out of the oven burned my hands. He put it in a string bag, and on the way home he broke off a crispy crust and put it in his mouth. The bread was delicious, fragrant - you can't imagine a better treat! Childhood smelled of warm rye bread baked from flour ground in our mill...
As a boy, I was fond of drawing. During the summer holidays, he carried a notebook and a pencil with him. In the midst of the summer of 1969, I was walking with a friend. Plantings were green along the road, rye was pouring with golden ripeness nearby, pigeons were bathing in the sky blue, and a mill reigned over the whole district - winged, like these pigeons, but firmly, firmly connected with the earth with its work. I took out a notebook and a pencil and made a drawing published here (author's note: in a magazine).
I also wrote poems and “at the dawn of a foggy youth” often published them in the Shatsk regional newspaper. How could I bypass our old mill with my poetic inspiration:

On a hillock - a carved silhouette.
It's a windmill with its wings outstretched
Proudly stands in the village,
Like a symbol of peasant Russia...

But one day the mill wings stopped - as it turned out, forever: electricity was brought to the windmill, and it began to rotate the millstones. Gradually the mill collapsed. With the beginning of "perestroika" the collective farm withered away. The windmill turned out to be useless. And although a sign appeared on its plank paneling, indicating that the Polno-Konobeevskaya mill is a monument of Russian wooden architecture (and, I will add, of the ancient life and life of the villagers), no one guarded this monument, and time and bad weather did their job. However, in 2003, on the eve of the celebration of the 450th anniversary of Shatsk, the district authorities nevertheless found funds for the restoration of the Konobeevskaya mill. The log frame remained the same, the worn stone millstones remained in place (but can you take them away?), but the plank sheathing was changed. As for the wings, obviously there was not enough money for their restoration. And so the windmill stood deflated, resembling a lone fortress tower. Finally, the authorities got their hands on the wings - they were restored to their previous dimensions, but, unfortunately, they stopped rotating and lost their planking. The mill froze, as if to confirm that from now on it is a monument, ”wrote Alexander Nikolaevich Potapov.

Natalia Bondareva

Literature:
A.N. Potapov "Mill. From childhood memories ”// Moscow Journal No. 4 (232), 2010

water mills

Denis Mahel
2010-201 9

Since ancient times, mills have played a huge role in the life of the Venevsky district. Before the advent of steam and "oil" engines, wind and water were the main sources of energy, excluding, of course, the "muscle mover". Mills remained the most sophisticated technical means almost until the end of the 19th century. Steam engines before the construction of the railway were very rare.

The power of the mill was characterized by the number of so-called sets. If the mill grinded grain into flour, then a millstone was installed on the setting. At small mills located on streams and rivulets, there was only one, on small rivers (Venevka, Polosnya) two or three, on the Sturgeon there were from three to six settings. The dams of many mills on the Osetr River were built of stone already at the beginning of the 19th century. In addition to the well-known flour mills, there were hullers, wool beaters and butter churns in the county. In the XVIII century, the city mill "Lubyanka" set in motion the machines of the canvas manufactory. In the 20th century, some mills turned on electric generators.

XVI - XVII centuries

The first mention of a water mill is found in the very first reliable document of the Venevsky district - "Scribe Book of 1571/1572".
“At Gorodensky, I’ll plant the Prince Ivanovskoye mill on the river on the Veneva, a large German wheel, and on the mill of the pipes there are nine oak fathoms, and there are five redistributions and a sixth redistribution of the hut in the same pipe. Yes, at the same mill on the river on the Veneva, a pond is started do, at the dam the sole is overlaid with oak bars.

The same document also mentions the first millers of Venev, a “black man without arable land” Filka the miller lived in the settlement, and the palace peasant miller Nechaiko lived near the ravine under the notch forest. "A black man without arable land" meant that he neither sowed nor reaped, but earned a living by craft.

In 1626, it was written: “Yes, there was a mill on Veneva near the Streltsy Sloboda, and that mill was owned by the Streltsy Pentecostal Ivashka Shcherbak and his comrades, and he paid dues from her to the Ustyug quarter at 3 rubles a year, and according to the tale of the local priests and all kinds of elective tenants people in the year 123 (1615) that spring water scattered the mill and the flesh, and that de mill in the year 132 (1623/1624) was not in business, it was empty.

The surname "Batishchev" never met in Venev, apparently, his family was recorded under a different one, which was then a common thing. Yes, and the meaning of the word "batishchev" can be translated as a criminal. In our city at that time there was only one family, the head of which was the old man Trofim, and his last name was Tochilin. Perhaps this was Jacob's father?

I wonder for what specific fault Yakov went to Azov? Shklovsky in 1948 came up with a version about a sacred oak allegedly cut down for the dam. The writer could not frankly point out that Batishchev was an "enemy of the people", whom Peter I sent to hard labor (on the galleys) in Azov, and he turned out to be a talented inventor. Presumably, Batishchev was exiled by decree of the tsar in 1699. But this is just a version.

The dam of the mill near the Zaraisky bridge, photographer P.N. Lavrov, 1903
From the funds of the Venevsky Museum of Local Lore

Okorokovs

Back in the 17th century, the Okorokov archers were Pentecostals in the Streltsy Sloboda, they traditionally worked at the mill located in the Sloboda. In 1721, Evtrop Kirillovich Okorokov received a place near the Zaraisky bridge for "eternal maintenance" from the Venevsky Epiphany Monastery, built a new mill on three stands, called "Lubyanka".

His son Ivan Evtropovich (1721-after 1782) organized a canvas manufactory on the basis of this mill in 1752 and was able to earn significant capital. He, being a Venevsky merchant, married Marfa Stepanovna, a noblewoman of the Tula district, which gave the right to his children to go beyond the merchant class and make a career. Both of his sons Ivan and Vasily graduated from the Moscow Imperial University. Vasily Ivanovich Okorokov (born 1758) rented the printing house of the university in 1788-1793 and 1798-1800. On many thousands of books published by him, you can find his publishing mark. Not bad for a miller's son and grandson.

We recommend reading

Android instructions

14 lasso meaning. ✚ On desire. Combined with the suit of Swords

Office programs

The meaning of the dream Straw

Windows instructions

How to interpret the dream "Jump"

Tablets

Why dream of Jumping in the Esoteric dream book?

Tablets

Other curious predictions

Office programs

If you had a bad dream