Find out where India is. Location of Ancient India. History of ancient India location of India on the map Physical map of India 19th century

The ancient Indians were agriculturalists. The oldest cities in India have been discovered. These are Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which arose five thousand years ago. The ancient Indians did not know iron. Tools and decorations were made of copper and bronze. The cities were busy with trade.

People use different sources to study the history of ancient India. Some of them are literary monuments and historical annals. In India, these were the sacred books of the Aryans "Vedas", as well as materials from the epic legends "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". In addition, historical monuments of architecture and architecture have survived to our times. Let's consider some of them:

Buddhist stupa The word "stupa" means a burial mound. This is the most important monumental structure of Buddhist art. A stupa is a Buddhist memorial and burial monument, which also served as a storage place for Buddhist relics. In the central part of India, in Sanchi, the Great Stupa (32 centuries BC) has been preserved.

Taj Mahal Taj Mahal is a mausoleum-mosque located in Agra. It was built by order of the descendant of Tamerlane, the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, in memory of his wife who died in childbirth (later Shah Jahan himself was buried here). 1. Buddhist stupa. The word "stupa" means a burial mound. This is the most important monumental structure of Buddhist art. A stupa is a Buddhist memorial and burial monument, which also served as a storage place for Buddhist relics.

Red fort. The Red Fort is a fortification in the Indian city of Agra was the seat of the rulers. Located above the Yamuna River, just 2.5 km from the Taj Mahal. Part of the area of ​​the Red Fort today is used for military purposes and is not accessible to visitors.

Vrindavan. Vrindavan is an ancient city in India. At this place in ancient times there was a forest in which, according to the literature of Hinduism, Krishna, during his earthly incarnation, performed his lilas (games) more than 5000 years ago. Vrindavan is also called "the city of 5000 temples"
The presentation was prepared by Pavlov Semyon Pupil 4 "A" class of Lyceum 144, St. Petersburg. To create the presentation, Internet resources were used: Great Illustrated Encyclopedia, vol. 11. Compiled by Y. Gershkovich, Moscow, 2010

To determine where is Ancient india on a modern map, it is worth first determining what exactly is considered as such. The overwhelming majority of modern scientists are inclined to recognize the Harappan culture as the first Indian civilization, which arose in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent in the Indus River valley. The oldest traces date back to 3300 BC.

Geography of India

When answering the question of where India is located, it is worth starting with its place on the continent of Eurasia. The country is located in the southern part of Asia, and most of its territory is located on the Indian subcontinent, which is washed by the Bay of Bengal in the southwest and the Arabian Sea in the southeast.

The geological history of India, which began more than seventy-five million years ago, contributed to the formation of a rather distinctive geological, geographical and biological region, which is today called the Indian subcontinent.

The separation of the subcontinent is facilitated not only by the waters washing it on both sides, but also by the mountain ranges of the Himalayas, which are the highest mountains of the planet. It is in the Himalayas that the "peak of the planet" is located - Mount Chomolungma, also known as Everest. The hill plays the role of a natural border between India and China.

Ancient history of India

The region where India is located has become one of the centers of origin of the most ancient civilizations of the East. In age, he is second only to the Sumerians and Egyptians. The culture arose in the northwest of the subcontinent, but by the 6th century, many independent principalities emerged in the entire north of India, which went down in history as the Mahajanapada.

By the 3rd century BC, the Mauryan Empire appeared on the territory of India, which rather quickly subjugated almost all of South Asia: from Afghanistan to modern Banladesh. The empire did not last long, but it was replaced by other, successive governments. So there were: the Greco-Indian, Indo-Scythian, Parthian-Indian and Kushan kingdoms.

Each of these states not only brought elements of their culture to the Indian, but also contributed to the spread of elements of Indian culture to neighboring regions. Traces of the cultural influence of this ancient civilization can be found in Iranian culture, in Roman and, of course, in Greek.

Foreign conquest

In the 10th century AD, passionate Islamic conquerors invaded the peninsula where India is located, who quickly conquered most of the peninsula and established the hegemony of Islam over a vast territory.

The first Islamic dynasty in the region was the Delhi Sultanate, which existed from 1206 to 1526. The Sultanate was replaced by the Mughal Empire, which managed to maintain the dominant position of Islam for another two centuries, but it also fell into decay, and was replaced by the Hindu Maratha Empire, created in 1624.

However, already in the 16th century, European merchants began to penetrate into the region where India is located, extremely interested in trade with a huge rich country. Portugal, France and the Netherlands made their own attempts. However, the greatest success was achieved by Great Britain, which by the middle of the 19th century subjugated most of the country, starting its conquest from small fragmented principalities.

However, the Portuguese colonists also managed to achieve certain successes. They conquered the territory in India where Goa is located. Portuguese administration existed on the site of the modern state until December 18, 1961, when Indian troops suppressed the resistance of the Portuguese and occupied the territory of the former Portuguese colony. However, Portugal recognized the annexation of Goa to India only in 1974.

Another Portuguese possession in South Asia was the coast of Kerala in India. Today it is the state with one of the highest population densities in the entire country. And it is located on the Malabar coast.

East India Company

To conquer India, Britain chose an already proven technology - it attracted private capital and technology that could effectively capture new markets and bribe local rulers.

For this purpose, the British East India Company was established. The name of this large corporation indicates that the monopoly was engaged in trade in eastern India, that is, on the Indian subcontinent.

In this case, it is necessary to clarify where the West Indies are located in order to avoid traditional confusion.

Historically, the West Indies are the islands located off the coast. South America in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. First of all, we are usually talking about Cuba and Antigua.

Towards decolonization

Despite the fact that the liberation of India from foreign oppression and the beginning of decolonization was a positive event, it turned out that it could have extremely negative consequences.

In 1946, a series of military insurgencies demonstrated to the British authorities their inability to control the vast overseas territories in India any longer, and the parliamentary elections that followed once again demonstrated the need to start moving towards the independence of a huge country.

The first active participants in the forceful resistance to the British military were Muslims, who proclaimed the day of direct action in 1946. As a result of this action, a series of bloody clashes between Hindus and Muslims swept across the country. The need to divide India along religious and ethnic lines became apparent not only to the local population, but also to Her Majesty's government.

Partition of India

On August 15, 1947, Great Britain announced the creation of the dominion of Pakistan, and the very next day it became known that the Indian Union had proclaimed independence. This decision led to extremely bloody events and clashes, the victims of which were about a million people, and another eighteen million were forced to leave their homes and move to other regions.

The decision to divide the British possessions before India's declaration of sovereignty was made so that the creation of Pakistan did not look like its separation from sovereign India. Thus, both countries had equal rights and should not have claims to each other. However, such a solution to the issue did not help to avoid territorial disputes in the future.

As a result of such large migration flows, a huge number of problems have emerged. The city of Delhi has experienced the greatest burden, in which from one to two million people have settled. A large number of people could not find a permanent home and were forced to settle in refugee camps.

However, the government of the new country soon began an active program to build permanent houses in place of tents.

India Economy

The part of the world, where India and China are located, is of great importance for the modern international economy. Both countries are among the three largest economic powers in terms of GDP, second only to the United States. However, the size of the economy should not be misleading, as over the past decades India has accumulated numerous problems that have not yet been resolved.

The level of social inequality and poverty in the country is extremely high, and traditional customs in many regions prevail over secular laws.

Most economists agree that despite the significant efforts of the authorities to modernize, the state's economy still has the character of an agro-industrial and does not reach the post-industrial level.

Social structure

The caste system of society still continues to have a significant impact on all spheres of social and economic relations. Inside her, people are born, brought up and die. Each of these stages is marked by rituals specific to a particular caste. Even the names of the child are given in accordance with his social status.

Until recently, any Indian, applying for a job, had to indicate in the appropriate box not only his religion, but also the caste to which he belongs. Marriages between people belonging to different strata were not registered, and if young people nevertheless dared to tie their fates, then there could be no question of the recognition of such marriages by society.

In addition, one of the most cruel customs practiced in the country until recently was the ritual self-immolation of widows.

However, some non-progressive economists believe that such a system, developed many centuries ago, contributes to the better functioning of the traditional economy. However, in this case, the question remains about why a traditional economy is needed in the 21st century.

www.syl.ru

The ancient city of Lothal, which arose 2400 y.p. BC.

In the southern Indian state of Karnataka, on the banks of the river with the difficult to pronounce name Tungabhadra, among the mighty granite boulders are the ruins of the capital of the once mighty Vijayanagar Empire. The remains of Vijayanagara belong to UNESCO World Heritage Sites, where they are listed as "Monuments of Hampi". It seems that nature itself has given people a scoop and a sandbox to realize their desires and ambitions. Outcrops of gray coarse-grained granite in the heart of the Deccan plateau, the presence of waterways and fertile soil have attracted people here since the 1st century AD.

It was once home to nearly half a million people and was one of the largest cities in India.

Various crafts, literature, music and architecture have reached the greatest development here. Countless travelers from all over the world have tried in vain to describe the wonders of Vijayanagara.

A reasonable question arises: "How did the craftsmen cut and process solid and dense granite?" Many pseudoscientists claim that these huge boulders were cut by the ancient peoples with a laser or incredible space technologies.

There are "a thousand columns" along the road. Their purpose is not known for certain. It remains to be believed that earlier there were covered shopping arcades for the city market.

This is a real masterpiece of stone carvers - the granite chariot. Now you can see that there are elephants in the harness. However, horses used to be in their place.

Harappa and Mohenjo Daro culture

Mohenjo-daro

Hercules on the seals of the city

Tableware from Mohenjo-Daro

Harappa culture

On the streets of Mohenjo-Daro

decoration from Mohenjo-daro

Tools

Desk lamp

In all likelihood, the Harappas traded with the Sumerians. In the Sumerian writings, cities were mentioned with which they traded. Among them was a city called Meluke, scientists identify it with the proto-Indian city of Mohenjo - Daro. Large quantities of remains of cotton fabrics, a variety of faience beads, shells were found in the Harappan territory - all of this was of foreign origin.

Mohenjo-daro excavation site

Mohenjo-Daro Seals

Pottery and textile tools were found among the ruins. Pottery workshops were located throughout the city. Almost everything from pipes and bricks to thin-walled vessels, graceful figurines and ornaments was made there. Residents also used objects made of copper, tin, bronze - these are tools, jewelry and weapons. True, the weapons were made very crudely, probably there were no military operations on this territory. The Harappan people were never able to master the smelting of iron.

Harappan ceramics

Harappan game

Doharappan culture

Harappan figurines

Harappan ceramics

Terracotta figurines from Harappa

Terracotta

Harappan letter

One or two rooms for ablutions (in a modern way, two bathrooms), ventilation ducts. Air conditioners have not yet been found.

An inconceivably developed system of separate sewerage systems with septic tanks and even ... public toilets. Water supply. Rainwater poured from the roofs through specially shaped pottery pipes so that the spray would not fall on passers-by. The walls were plastered, but all this, decoration, paint and upper floors, disappeared.

The quality of the masonry is unusually high, includes many techniques (no arched vault), and stone slabs are for chic. Here is a room on the second floor

The houses had 2-3 floors, at least 8x9 m, at least one courtyard and wells were obligatory. This is not a tower, this is a well (cistern?) From the second floor.

Harappa hieroglyphs

The extinction of civilization occurred, most likely, due to natural causes. Climate change or earthquakes could change the course of rivers or dry them out, and the soils were depleted. The farmers were no longer able to feed the cities, and the inhabitants left them. The huge socio-economic complex disintegrated into small groups. Written language and other cultural achievements were lost. There is nothing to suggest that the decline occurred overnight. Instead of the deserted cities in the north and south, new settlements appeared at this time, people moved east, to the Ganges valley.

The floors of the rich houses are also brick, the pools are plastered with bitumen. Some floors are covered with an unknown vitreous composition, and under some there are ducts for air heating.

City plan

Ceramics. Mohenjo-Daro. 4500 sun.

Clay seal from Harappa but not yet deciphered.

The Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture, traded with the Sumerians from southern Mesopotamia. By far the most exquisite and rare artifact found to date is a small, square-shaped seal engraved with an animal. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, nevertheless and in spite of the use of computers, the content of the text remains undeciphered. While historians agree that civilization has plummeted, there is disagreement over possible reasons its completion. The conquerors from Central and West Asia, according to some historians, were the cause of the disappearance of the Indus Valley civilization, but this opinion is open to discussion and controversy. More plausible explanations are repeated floods caused by tectonic movements of the earth, soil salinization, desertification.

Bulls harnessed to a cart. Children's toy found in the excavations of the Harappan civilization

Coiled copper wire necklace. Traces of silk have been preserved inside. These are the earliest traces of the use of wild silkworm fibers in South Asia. Harappa 3B: circa 2450 - 220 BC

Harappan figurines

A female burial, disturbed by ancient robbers. A baby is buried under the mother's feet. Harappa is one of two ancient civilization capitals in the Indus River Basin.

raskopkivostok.mirtesen.ru

India maps | India travel guide / India travel general information

1. Geographic (graphic maps) of India

for lovers of traditional cards: 1.1. Large tourist map of India, which shows all major cities and marked with stars the largest tourist attractions of interest to travelers. This map will help you understand where are the places where you want to go and create an idea of ​​the geography of India.

1.2. Detailed geographic map India, indicating, in addition to cities, also meridians, rivers, mountain systems, etc. This map is quite detailed and very large, to view the map, click on the preview and it will open in a new window.

2. Interactive travel map of India and Asia

The indoneet has an interactive map of India (and Asia too), which shows all the places indicated in this guide, as well as stories and other materials written by travelers, with direct links to them from the map. That is, the map itself indicates how many materials are in total, by increasing the map by scrolling to a city or point of interest, you will see the number of posts about this place.

3. Interactive map of India

Unlike graphical and scanned maps, an interactive map of India with maps.google.ru allows you to navigate through the whole of India and even find a village, see Indian national highways and local access roads, as well as plans of major Indian cities with the names of streets and hotels. Different flags on this map of India indicate the places for which there is information in the guide, the names of places are naturally in Russian. View See the map of India "India in Russian" on a larger map Navigation maps for gps are laid out for each state separately, you can find and download by the links of the map of India

indonet.ru

Ancient cities of India - India, culture, cities, description

The ancient cities of India are unique and unrepeatable in their beauty. After all, the Indian civilization is one of the oldest in the world. The oldest cities in India, known to us, is Varanasi, founded, according to the legend of the Indians, by Shiva himself on the banks of the Ganges fifty centuries ago.

The city of Kashi-Varnasi The next city is Madurai. It was built around the Meenakshi Temple and the temple is right in the center of it. This temple in the photo:

Another ancient city is Ujjain, where the so-called festival of jugs, Kumbha Mela, is held every twelve years. There are also a couple of attractions of the city - a Shivaist temple and an observatory.

View of Ujjain city from the river

Also, the oldest city in India is Patna - a place of pilgrimage for many Indian believers. Patna is a continuously inhabited city like many other ancient cities in India.

Modern Patna

Pushkar is the smallest city in India, but no less ancient. It is known for its camel fair.

Excavations of ancient cities in India, locations.

The sites of the most ancient cities in India are mainly the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers. The oldest city in India was excavated by archaeologists in the Mohenjo-Daro area. More than five thousand years ago, the city was inhabited. The city had straight streets running from west to east and from north to south. The city had a sewerage system, and residents also had wells. The buildings were lined with bricks. the residents also had pets. Many tools were found in the city, as well as jewelry and figurines. Now this territory is uninhabited - Mohenjo-Daro is translated as "the hill of death".

Excavation at the "Hill of Death"

india-onlain.ru

Detailed map of India in Russian. Where is India located on the world map.

India is located in the south of Asia, mostly on the Indian subcontinent, and less on the continental part. India also includes numerous islands located in the east - in the Bay of Bengal, in the south - in the Indian Ocean, in the west - in the Arabian Sea. In the west, India has common borders with Pakistan, with Bhutan, Nepal and China in the northeast, in the east with Bangladesh and Myanmar. The disputed territories of the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir have common borders with Afghanistan. The country has sea borders with the Maldives in the southwest, in the southeast - with Indonesia, in the south - with the islands of Sri Lanka.

In terms of its territory, the country is in seventh place in the world. The total area is 3.3 million square kilometers, which includes 90.44% of the land and 9.56% of the water surface. India ranks 2nd in terms of population in the world - 1.2 billion people live in the state. About 70% of Indians live in rural areas.

The majority of the Indian population professes the Hindu religion - about 80%, Muslims make up 14% of the total population, Christians - 2.4%, Sikhs - about 2%, Jains and Buddhists - less than 1%. There are also other religions in the country - Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Bahá'ís.

The official languages ​​of India are English and Hindi. In different states, both state and other languages ​​are used: Tamil, Kannara, Telugu, Bengali, Urdu and others. The population of India speaks over 1600 languages ​​and dialects.

In India, administrative divisions include the Delhi district, six union territories and 28 states. All union territories and states are divided into districts, which are divided into tuluk. The largest cities: Mumbai - about 10 million people, New Delhi - about 7 million people, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata) - about 4.5 million people. Major cities are Hyderabad, Madras, Bangapor, each with a population of about 4 million.

Detailed physical map of India in Russian with major cities.

See where India is located on the world map:

Sorry, the card is temporarily unavailable

webmandry.com

Landmarks of India. Photo and description on Turister.Ru.

India: useful information

Ancient landmarks of India

Outstanding monuments of Ancient India are the cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, located at a distance of 60 km from each other in the state of Maharashtra. The first temples in Ajanta were carved over several centuries, starting from the 2nd century BC. The Ellora cave village was created later, but it is just as impressive in its scale: the complex includes 34 caves, and its central structure is the colossal Kailasanatha temple. Cave temple complexes, many sculptures, remnants of ancient paintings have also been found on Elephanta Island in the Mumbai waters of the Arabian Sea.

Among the main treasures of India, protected by UNESCO, is the abandoned city of Hampi. It was in these places that some of the events described in the Ramayana developed. The Virupaksha Temple located in Hampi is still active.

In Amritsar, in the center of the artificial lake of the same name, stands the Sikh Golden Temple Harmandir Sahib, which can be reached by a narrow marble bridge.

For many travelers, imbued with the ideas of Buddhism, ancient temples scattered throughout the country become the strongholds of the journey.

Also, immerse yourself in Indian culture and centuries-old traditions in the Old City of Gokarna, which is almost entirely composed of wooden houses, or in Little Tibet, the largest Buddhist community in India.

Panoramic view of the Taj Mahal from Airpano.com

Sights of the cities of India

In the capital Delhi, the most interesting are the temples of different religions, the Red Fort and city parks. It houses the Lotus Temple - central to the Bahá'í religion, as well as the National Museum, which has the largest collection of artifacts in India. More attractions of Delhi can be found in the thematic section.

One should not perceive the most popular Indian resort state of Goa only as a place for a beach holiday. If you wish, you will be able to compose a completely diverse excursion program, visiting Indian sights: temples, churches and mosques, museums, historical quarters. For example, the Basilica of Jesus in Old Goa, the graceful architectural ensemble of Largo da Igreja in Panaji, the main temple of Goa - Shri Mangeshi. The resorts are close to the beautiful Dudhsagar Falls - the second largest in India. The best place for walking and shopping for souvenirs is June 18th Street in Panaji.

Mumbai is the capital of the Indian film industry, home to the Bollywood pavilions. Tourists' attention is attracted by a huge triumphal arch - the Gate of India, the Flora fountain in the ancient Roman style. With excursions, you can visit the planetarium of the Nehru Scientific and Cultural Center, located in a prominent modern building. The largest exposition in the city is presented at the Prince of Wales Museum. The best place for families with children is the huge Esselworld water park and amusement park.

India's most recognizable architectural landmarks in Jaipur, the "Pink City", are located in the old quarter, where most stone houses have a characteristic pink or terracotta hue. The city is home to the Maharaja's grand palace, the Albert Hall Museum, originally conceived as a city meeting hall, and the huge Jantar Mantar observatory. In the suburbs of Jaipur, there is the legendary Amber Fort, which now houses a museum and an observation deck.

The famous sights of Kolkata (Kolkata) are the Kali Temple, the largest zoo in India - Alipor, the ancient Indian Museum, where, among other exhibits, ancient fossils and meteorites are kept, Victoria Memorial and St. Paul's Cathedral.

India Attractions Videos

It is one of the most colorful and original in the world. The variety of spiritual and philosophical teachings, ancient architecture, the beauty of nature attract to themselves. There is a desire to visit the territory where India is located - the country of the ancient Vedas. This is a country in which the beauty and grandeur of temples amaze, and music and a magical atmosphere immerse you in the world of mystery and sensuality.

India on world map

Where is India located on the world map? Geographically, the country is adjacent to South Asia and occupies a significant part of the Indian subcontinent. India has a lot of neighbors - states. In the northwest, the country is bordered by Pakistan and Afghanistan. In the northeast - with China, Nepal and Bhutan. The India-China border is the longest and runs along the main Himalayan ridge. In the east, it borders with the states of Bangladesh and Myanmar. India has sea borders in the southwest with the Maldives, in the south with Sri Lanka and in the southeast with Indonesia.

The area of ​​the country is quite large and amounts to 3.3 million square meters. km. In the east, south and west, the peninsula is washed by the Bay of Bengal, the Laccadive and the Arabian seas. The major rivers of India are the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Indus, Krishna, Sabarmati.

Since the territory of the country is distinguished by its large size and different topography, the climate in different regions is different.

Where is India covered with snow? In the northern part of the country are the Himalayas - one of the highest mountain systems. Here the mountain tops and valleys are covered with snow. In the east of the country is the Ganges Valley. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is located in the eastern and central part of the country;

State name

Where is India, whose name has changed several times? In ancient times it was called "the land of the Aryans", "the country of the brahmanas", "the land of the sages." Modern name the state of India comes from the name of the Indus River, the word "sindu" translated from ancient Persian means "river". The country has a second name, translated from Sanskrit it sounds like Bharat. This name is associated with the history of the ancient Indian king, which is described in the Mahabharata. Hindustan is the third name of the country; it has been used since the era of the Mughal Empire, but it has not been given official status. The Republic of India is the official name of the country, it appeared in the 19th century.

Ancient india

On the territory where ancient India was located, one of the oldest civilizations in the world was born. Its history includes two periods. The first is the period of the Harappan civilization, which began its development in the valley of the Indus River. The second period is the Aryan civilization associated with the emergence of Aryan tribes in the valleys of the Ganges and Indus rivers.

In the Harappan civilization, the main centers were the cities of Harappa (modern Pakistan) and Mohenjo-Daro ("Hill of the Dead"). The level of civilization was very high, as evidenced by the construction of cities with a harmonious layout and drainage system. Writing was developed, small plastic arts developed in artistic culture: small figurines, seals with reliefs. But the Harap culture has declined due to climate change, flooding and epidemics.

After the Harappan civilization ended its existence, the Aryan tribes came to the valleys of the Ganges and Indus rivers. Their appearance breathed new life into the Indian ethnos. From this period the Indo-Aryan period begins.

The main asset created by the Aryans of that period was a collection of texts - the Vedas. They are written in the Vedic language - the oldest form of Sanskrit.

Culture of Ancient India

The territory where India is located is the birthplace and development of religious and philosophical teachings. The culture of the ancient country is closely related to the secrets of the universe. Since ancient times, people have been asking questions of the Universe, trying to figure out the meaning of life. A separate place is occupied by the teaching of yoga, where self-immersion into the world of the human soul takes place. The uniqueness of culture also lies in the fact that music and dance are a companion to any event or event. The originality and diversity of culture is largely due to the fact that both local peoples and aliens participated in its formation.

The culture of Ancient India dates back to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. and up to the VI century. AD

The architecture of this period has its own characteristics. No monument ancient Indian culture has not survived. This is due to the fact that building material From that period, a tree appeared that has not survived to our time. And starting from the III century. BC. stone is being used in construction. Architectural buildings from this period have survived to this day. The main religion of this period was Buddhism, and therefore characteristic structures were erected: stupas, stambhi, cave temples.

The culture of Ancient India occupies an important place in world history. She has had a greater impact on all world development.

Agra

The ancient city of Agra was founded in the 15th century. It is located on the banks of the Yamuna River. The city of Agra is very large, and in order not to get lost, you need a map. Where is India during the reign of the Mughals, the walls of the ancient city will tell. In the capital of the Mughal Empire, there were many palaces, parks, beautiful gardens.

Agra is an ancient city saturated with national flavor. Here you can see and get to know the people, plunge into the world national cuisine, buy souvenirs made using the Florentine mosaic technique - Pietra Dura, which has been a national craft since the Mughal times.

The center of Agra, like many Indian cities, is a huge market. The city is home to one of the largest spa centers in Asia, Kaya Kalp.

Taj Mahal

India has one of them. The Taj Mahal, home to the mausoleum of one of the most beloved wives of Shah Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, is one of the landmarks of Agra, which has not been seen in the past 400 years.

Taj Mahal is a monument of love and translated from Hindi means "Crown of Palaces". He became the last gift for his beloved. The palace was built for 22 years, marble for it was mined for 300 km. The walls of the tomb are decorated with mosaics of precious and semi-precious stones, although when viewed from afar, the color of the mausoleum appears to be white. The proportions of the structure are perfect. Even the fact that his minarets were rejected is not accidental. This was done so that in the event of an earthquake, minarets would not fall on the mausoleum.

The Taj Mahal is a pearl of Indian culture that embodies the love and wealth of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.

India is a wonderful and mysterious country; has long attracted my attention, mainly by its architecture. Especially the desire to know how it was all built? For example, this:

Kailasanatha temple carved out of the rock, top view

I don't really believe in the official version that it was carved into the rock by hand. The area of ​​the temple from above is about 3000 m2 (58x51m), the volume is about 97,000 m3. And this is not limestone, but basalt. Of course, not all of this volume had to be removed - in the center there was a carved temple building with an area of ​​1980 m² (approx. 30,000 m3). It is even more difficult to take out figuratively. It's one thing to just hammer with a sledgehammer and take out the rubble, and quite another thing to hammer so that the result is something like this:

In the past, it means that such things were created by hand, probably without any drawings? And in our time to repeat this, using all our modern technology, is weak? Therefore, not entirely trusting modern sources, I thought that maybe the ancients would shed more light on this issue? And I turned my gaze to Strabo (a Greek geographer who lived in the 1st century BC, who wrote the "Geographical Encyclopedia" in 17 volumes). I will warn you right away that I have not yet been able to find the answer to this question, but I dug up a lot of interesting things for myself. Which is what I share.

Geographical position of India

Strabo describes India as follows:

"This is the first and largest country to the east."

Further, he gives a description of the sources of information available at that time, from which he drew his information on geography. This characteristic, in my opinion, is still relevant now, since those sources are still our sources of knowledge about those times:

“Readers have to accept condescendingly the information about this country, since it is farthest from us and only a few of our contemporaries managed to see it. However, even those who saw, saw only some parts of this country, and most of the information is transmitted by hearsay. Moreover, even what they saw in passing during the military campaign, they learned by catching it on the fly. That is why they report contradictory information about the same subject, however, writing down all the facts as if they had been carefully checked. Some of them wrote even after joint participation in the campaign and stay in this country, such as Alexander's companions, who helped him to conquer Asia. Nevertheless, all these writers often contradict each other. But if they differ so much in their reports of what they saw, then what should you think about what they are reporting? "

He writes that the main routes at that time were sea routes. Merchants traveled from Egypt to India through the Arabian Gulf and rarely reached the Ganges.

Map drawn by Strabo:

World map according to Strabo, clickable

In fact, this was not a representation of Strabo, but of Eratosthenes (Greek mathematician, astronomer, geographer, philologist and poet of the 3rd century BC). We can say that Strabo borrowed it.

Eratosthenes divided the territory known at that time, or rather, mastered by the people of that time, into two parts - northern and southern. The border between these two parts was marked by a mountain range called Taurus (Taurus mons), which runs across almost the entire continent from the Mediterranean to the Pacific Ocean (in modern names). These two halves, in turn, were divided into parts, called at that time "sphragids". In the northern part there were only two sphrahids: Europa and Scythia. And in the south - Libia (now Libya, apparently, the name "Africa" ​​appeared later), Arabia, Syria, Persia, Ariana and India. China then, apparently, also did not yet know, and the territory of Seres, which was later called China, they attributed to Scythia. In addition to the horizontal division, there is also a clear vertical division on the map: everything that was indicated in red is called Asia. Following the logic of this coloring, one can come to the conclusion that all parts of Asia were somehow united with each other, i.e. were, if not a single state, then some kind of community, as opposed to Europe and Libya, which were not united by one color according to the same principle.

Iberia is according to Strabo, the westernmost country, and India is the easternmost, i.e. beyond it - only the ocean. Strabo further describes the size of India, referring to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Modern scholars believe that Eratosthenes' measurements were not very accurate. Although this assessment is complicated by the fact that now it is not known exactly what stages he used. Since the various stages vary from 157.5 to 209.4 m.But let's take the arithmetic mean - about 185 m - and translate its dimensions into modern ones:

“As for the length, it is counted from west to east. The part of this length up to Palibofres can be determined more reliably, since it measured with a measuring cord and is a royal road at a distance of 10,000 stadia(1850 km).

The length of the parts beyond the Palibophras is supposedly calculated during the voyage from the sea up the Ganges River to the Palibophras. This length can be something like 6000 stages. Thus, the total length of the country, precisely the smallest, will be 16,000 stadia (3000 km); this figure, according to Eratosthenes, is taken from “ List of road stations ", usually the most reliable. Megasthenes also agrees with Eratosthenes, while Patroclus accepts 1000 stadia less. If we add to this distance the length of the promontory, which protrudes further to the east, then these 3000 stadia will be the greatest length (i.e. 19,000 stadia - 3515 km). The latter is the distance from the mouth of the Indus River along the next farther coast to the mentioned cape and the eastern limits of India, where the so-called horses live. "

Modern view of India:

Its largest size from north to south is approximately 3200 km, from west to east - 4500 km if we count the eastern part of India, which is almost cut off from the main part of the republic of Bangladesh. Although the borders of India since then could have changed more than once, nevertheless, the measurements of the ancients roughly coincide with the current dimensions of India, although Strabo blames his contemporaries and predecessors for their inaccuracies.

Royal road and postal service

I found on the Internet a mention of the Royal Road, but located not in India, but to the west - in the territories of modern Turkey, Iraq and Iran:

Royal Road Map

“Royal Road: According to the Greek explorer Herodotus of Halicarnassus (5th century BC), the road connecting the capital of Lydia, Sardes and the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Susa and Persepolis. Other similar roads are known from cuneiform texts.

Herodotus describes the road between Sardes and Susa in the following words:

As for this road, the truth is. There are royal stations everywhere with excellent resting places, and the entire road runs through a country that is populated and safe.

1. Through Lydia and Phrygia there are twenty stages, amounting to 520 kilometers.
2. After the confluence of the Phrygia River into the Khalis River, which has a gate through which one must pass in order to cross the river, and there is a strong guard post.
3. Then, passing through Cappadocia, which has twenty-eight stages (572 km) to the borders of Cilicia.
4. At the borders of Cilicia, you will pass through two rows of gates and security posts: then, passing through them, three more stages (85 km) to drive through Cilicia.
5. The border of Cilicia and Armenia is a navigable river called the Euphrates. In Armenia, the number of stages with resting places is fifteen (310 km), and there are security posts along the way.
6. Then from Armenia, when you get to the land of Matiene, there are thirty-four stages, totaling 753 kilometers. 4 navigable rivers flow through this country, which can only be crossed by ferries, first the Tigris, then the second and third, called by the same name - Zabatus, although they are not the same river.
7. Driving from there to the Cissian land, go through eleven stages (234 km) to the Chaspes river, which is also navigable; and the city of Susa was built on it. The total number of stages is only one hundred and eleven.

This is how Herodotus describes the work of the postal service using this road:

“There is nothing in the world faster than these messengers: the postal service is so cleverly arranged among the Persians! They say that along the way they have horses and people placed, so that every day of the journey there is a special horse and person. Neither snow, nor downpour, nor heat, nor even the night time can prevent each rider from galloping at full speed the designated segment of the path. The first messenger conveys the message to the second, and that to the third. And so the message passes from hand to hand until it reaches the goal, like torches at the Hellenic holiday in honor of Hephaestus. The Persians call this horse post "Angareion". [Herodotus, Histories 8.98.]

“The development of postal relations in the former Rus' had partly influence and domination of the Tatars, who, even in the places of their previous stay in Asia, arranged special camps for their officials, ambassadors and messengers on the travel roads, and to these camps the neighboring inhabitants, by order of the khan, had to deliver horses and all kinds of food. The very words that have become so common in Russian: "Yam" and "coachman" are Tatar words... Of these, the first comes from "dzyam" - road, and the second from "yam-chi" - a guide. The arrangement of the pits multiplied so much that in the 17th century Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Nizhny Novgorod and the Seversk cities, and later Ukrainian cities, mainly Novgorod and Pskov, through which foreign ambassadors passed to the capital, were connected by pits with Moscow.

Travel letters began to appear already in the 15th century. The oldest of them dates back to 1493.

The famous Baron Herberstein, who was in the Moscow state at the beginning of the 16th century, was the first to report information about the Yamskaya riding in Russia among foreigners. He's writing: " Grand Duke Moscow has coachmen with a sufficient number of horses in different parts of its principality, so that wherever the prince sends his messenger, horses will be found everywhere for him. The messenger has the right to choose the horse that seems to him the best. At each pit, the horses were changed for us. There was no shortage of fresh horses. Whoever demanded them 10 or 12, they brought them 40 and 50. The tired ones were left on the road and replaced with others, who were taken in the first village or from passing by. " ( )

By Tatars we mean, of course, tartars. From another source (Gurlyand I. Ya. Yamskaya gonba in the Moscow state until the end of the 17th century. Yaroslavl. 1900):

The border of the village is apparently the outskirts of the village. Previously, settlements-settlements were surrounded by walls and ditches. Which were called pits? That is, it may well be a Russian word. And not only Persian, Turkic or Tatar. But for some reason, they tried to hide the presence of a postal service in Russia in the Middle Ages:

Or explain its occurrence by someone's foreign influence:

Although tartars are not at all in relation to Russian foreigners. It turns out a generally perverted distortion: first, declare your own as foreign, and then borrow something else from them. When other countries try to glorify themselves at every opportunity that arises, Russia, apparently, has always been “famous” for belittling itself as much as possible. Although the Russianness of these "humiliators" can also be questioned.

But I was completely distracted from India. Something is taking me to the "Native Penates".

Ancient indian capital

In that quote, Strabo also mentions a very specific place - the city of Palibofra. This is how Strabo describes the city of Palibophra, or rather not Strabo himself, but Megasthenes, whom he quotes:

“At the confluence of the Ganges with another river, the Palibophras are said to be located - 80 stadia long and 15 wide, in the form of a parallelogram; the city is surrounded by a wooden tynom with holes cut through it, so that through these gaps it is possible to shoot from a bow. In front of the tyn there is a moat, which serves both for protection and for the drainage of sewage flowing from the city. The tribe in which this city is located is called the Prasias; it is the most wonderful of all. The king must, in addition to his own name, received at birth, also bear the same name as the city, and be called Palibofrom, like Sandrocott, to whom he was sent as the ambassador of Megasthenes. "

Not only this, but also many other descriptions of India, Strabo took from Megasthenes, calling him a deceitful writer. Megasthenes is a Greek traveler who lived in the 3rd century BC. The records of Megasthenes have not survived to our time, but extensive excerpts from them are cited by Diodorus of Siculus, Strabo and Arrian. Megasthenes calls Palibofra the main city of India. Its other name is Pataliputra. It is believed to have been built in 490 BC as a small fort on the Ganges River. If this is really the city mentioned by Strabo, then it turns out that the Royal Road was much longer than it is known now.

Location of Pataliputra on modern map of India

In this regard, I recall one more structure that resembles a road - the Genghis Khan shaft.

Climate of India

Strabo further describes the climate of India, based on the words of Eratosthenes. This is another fact that I noticed: so many of the sources I am considering consist of excerpts from earlier sources. And it turns out that this applies not only to sources of the later - 16-18 centuries, but also such early ones as Strabo. He himself lived in the 1st century BC. But he constantly refers to authors who lived 100-200 years earlier than him. This is how Strabo describes the appearance of the Indians:

"As for the population, the South Indians are similar in skin color to Ethiopians, and in facial features and hair - to other people (after all, due to the humidity of the air, their hair is not curly), while the North Indians are like Egyptians."

Those. southerners are black and northerners are white. Description of winter in India:

“Aristobulus reports that only the mountains and foothills of India are irrigated with rain and covered with snow; the plains, on the other hand, are devoid of both rain and snow and receive moisture only from flooding rivers. In winter, the mountains are covered with snow; with the onset of spring, the rains begin, increasing more and more, and during the trade winds they already pour out continuously day and night with great force until the rise of Arcturus; and rivers overflowing with snow and rain irrigate the plains.

Cities perched on top artificial hills, form islands (similar to what happens in Egypt and Ethiopia) "

Unfortunately, the ancient authors do not report exactly how the artificial hills were constructed. Since it is not so easy to make hills of such a size that entire cities can fit on them. But, apparently, for them it was not a wonder? After all, as described here, in Egypt and Ethiopia, the cities were arranged according to the same principle.

“Aristobulus points out the similarity of this country with Egypt and Ethiopia and emphasizes their difference - the fact that the flooding of the Nile comes from the southern rains, while the Indian rivers - from the northern ones.

From his messages, it can be assumed with probability that this country is prone to strong earthquakes, since the high humidity makes the earth loose and gets cracked, so that even rivers change channels. In any case, he says that, sent on some errand, he saw a country with more than a thousand cities, together with villages, abandoned by the inhabitants, because the Indus, leaving its former channel and turning left into another channel, is much deeper, flows rapidly. falling down like a cataract (waterfall), so the area left to the right is no longer flooded by the flood of the river, since it now lies not only above the new channel, but also above the water level during the flood. "

All authors (described by Strabo) indicate that the land in India is fertile and gives a rich harvest twice a year. Therefore, a lot of grain is grown there, including millet, rice, wheat, barley, as well as flax, many different vegetables and fruits. And also exotic plants for Europeans. And huge trees:

“Regarding the size of the trees, he says that 5 people can barely grasp their trunks.

Aristobulus mentions that near Akesin and its confluence with Giarotida there are trees with branches inclined to the ground, of such size that 50 horsemen can indulge in midday rest under the shade of one tree (and even 400 according to Onesikrit).

However, as for the stories about the size of the trees, all were overshadowed by the writers, who report that they saw a tree behind Giarotida, giving a shadow 5 stadia long at noon. "

5 stages is about 1 km. How tall must a tree be to give such a shadow at noon? Although perhaps the ancient authors were slightly lying? Or Kadykchansky is right, asserting that not India is described here, but more northern latitudes. Many drugs and poisons are also produced in India. But:

“Aristobulus, moreover, adds that the Indians have a law punishing the death of the inventor of some deadly drug, if he has not invented the antidote; if he invented an antidote, then he receives a reward from the kings "

Alexander the Great in India

Describes Strabo and the adventures of Alexander the Great in these places. Frightened by the strong flooding of the rivers and, in connection with this, the difficult passability for his army, he climbed to explore the mountains:

“Alexander learned that the mountainous and northern regions are the most inhabited and fertile, while the southern region, on the contrary, is partly waterless, and partly prone to floods and completely burned out, so that it is more suitable for wild animals than for humans. Be that as it may, he set out on a campaign to first capture this illustrious country, counting at the same time that the rivers that he had to overcome, it is better to cross near the sources, since they flowed across, cutting the country he wanted cross. At the same time, he heard that some rivers merge into one stream, and moreover, more and more, the further they flow, so that this country becomes more and more difficult to pass, especially with a lack of ships. Fearing this, Alexander crossed the Kofu River and began the conquest of the mountainous region, which faces to the east. "

Having reached Gipanis, he stopped, because his army could no longer withstand the difficulties of the campaign. The warriors were exhausted by the incessant downpours. In ancient times, three rivers were called the Hypanis: the Southern Bug River in southern Ukraine, the Kuban River in southern Russia, and the Beas River in the Punjab state of India, which is also called Ardzhikuja - in the Vedas or Vipasha in ancient Indian texts, and the Gifasis among the ancient Greeks. It is located in the north of India.

“After Kofa followed Indus, Gidasp, Akesin, Giarotida and, finally, Gipanis. To penetrate further, Alexander was prevented, firstly, by respect for some oracles, and secondly, he was forced to stop by his army, which could no longer withstand the overwhelming difficulties of the campaign. However, most of all the soldiers suffered from dampness during continuous downpours. From the eastern parts of India, thus, we became aware of all the regions lying on this side of the Hypanis and even some lands beyond the Hypanis, which were added by those who penetrated after Alexander beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and the Palibofri. "

“Alexander made this decision and refused to penetrate into the eastern regions, firstly, because he encountered obstacles for crossing the Gipanis; secondly, due to the fact that from experience he was convinced of the falsity of rumors to which he had previously attached importance to the fact that the plains were scorched by the sun and are more suitable for wild animals than for the habitation of the human race. That is why Alexander entered the plains, abandoning the eastern ones, which is why we know the former better than the latter.

The lands between Hypanis and Hidasp are said to be occupied by 9 tribes, and there are about 5000 cities, everything is no less than the Spit that is in Meropis; however, this figure appears to be exaggerated. With regard to the country between the Indus and the Hydaspes, I have already said which supposedly worth mentioning peoples dwell there. Further, below them live the so-called Sibs (I also mentioned them), Mallas and Sidraks - large tribes "

They loved to count cities in thousands in ancient times! Modern India with its population of 1.3 billion people has only 415 cities. But, perhaps, only large cities were included in this list. And if you also count the villages? Strabo writes that all the cities he mentioned were no less than Kos. The modern name of Kos is Chora. This city is located on the island of Astypalea in the Aegean Sea, its population is 1385 people. Archaeologists claim that a modern city is equal in area to an ancient one, because it stands on old foundations.

Strabo does not mention the large tribes of Mallas and Sidraks anywhere else, and the Sib tribe describes it as follows:

“When Alexander, with just one attack, took the Aorn rock, at the foot of which the Indus flows, close to his sources, his praises said that Hercules went to the attack of this rock three times and was recaptured three times. The descendants of the participants in the campaign of Hercules were the Shibs, who, according to them, retained as a sign of their origin the custom of dressing like Hercules in animal skins, wearing clubs and burning a brand in the form of a club on bulls and mules. They try to support this myth with stories about the Caucasus and Prometheus. Indeed, they transfer the scene of these myths here from Pontus on a completely insignificant basis: because they have found some kind of sacred cave in the area of ​​the paropamisades. This cave they passed off as the dungeon of Prometheus; it was here, according to them, that Hercules came to free Prometheus, and this place supposedly is the Caucasus, which the Greeks declared the prison of Prometheus ”

Indo-Greek kingdom

The region of paropamisads mentioned here is located on the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan (and earlier, this means that it was the territory of India or Greco-India after the start of the development of this territory by the Greeks). Its other name Paropamisus is Hindu Kush or Hindu Kush. It seems that the name means "Above the eagle flight." Having conquered this place, Alexander the Great founded a city here Alexandria Caucasian in 329 BC e., which in the II-I centuries BC. e. was one of the capitals of the Indo-Greek kingdom, which arose as an extension of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, and existed from 180 BC. e. up to 10 A.D. e.

Ancient cities founded by Alexander the Great in Central and South Asia

Caucasian, because at that time these mountains were also called Caucasian. The ancients had a problem with names! With the Alexandria, something is understandable. There are plenty of them all over the world. Even in Ukraine and Belarus, where the Macedonian was probably not (or was?). Or maybe the names of Alexandria are connected not only with Macedonian? After all, the name Alexander is quite common. There are 3 Alexandria in Australia, 2 in Canada, 22 in the USA, 1 more in Colombia, 1 in Brazil, 2 in South Africa (). But the Caucasus?

Location of the Indo-Greek Kingdom

However, Strabo, who lived in the 1st century BC, knew nothing about this kingdom (which existed at the same time). Therefore, he does not mention it in his book. Moreover, he claims that these places have been little studied by his fellow tribesmen. Later, on the same territory and much larger, the empire of the Great Mughals was located:

The Hindu Kush mountains (Paropamisads), among other things, are also known for such statues:

Buddha statues in Bamiyan, drawing 1896.

And photo. The first was made in 1976, when the statues were still there, the second - after the destruction of the statues by the Islamists-Taliban in 2001:

True, they were built later than the time when Alexander the Great founded his cities there, and the Sibs excavated a sacred cave. The smaller statue (35 m) was built in 507 AD, and big statue(53 m) - in 554. AD Although personally I am still interested in the question: how were these statues made? What tools are you using? Here, even in the photo, you can see that the surface of the niche has been cut off like a knife. As if they took a giant jigsaw and carefully carved this niche in the rock. There, people are especially mocking for the scale. Holes - from wooden reinforcement, to which wooden elements were attached. Since the statues were covered with wood. Judging by the diameter of these holes, this reinforcement was represented by the trunks of rather large trees. Currently, the area is not very wooded. Their faces were also wooden. In the drawing of 1896, they are drawn, but somehow incomprehensible. And in the photo of 1976 top part the face is already missing. And I don't know what about the prison of Prometheus, but ancient manuscripts were discovered in the caves of the Hindu Kush. Some of the manuscripts were written in Gandhari and Haruhi, while others were in Sanskrit.

Strabo does not write anything about the technologies of the ancient Indian builders. Probably because he himself does not know. But he gives descriptions of this country, which he himself considers mythical and mystical, they are so unusual in their content:

“By all accounts, the whole country on the other side of the Gipanis is the best, however, there is no exact description of it. The information conveyed by the writers is exaggerated and has a more fantastic character due to their unfamiliarity with the country and its remoteness from us. (Eh, Strabo did not read our Wikipedia! About 300 written sources describing THESE PLACES AT THAT TIME - my note) Such, for example, are the stories about ants digging gold and other creatures - animals and people - peculiar in appearance and completely unusual in the sense of some of their natural characteristics. So, for example, they report about the durability of sulfur, which stretches the lifetime even beyond 200 years. They talk about the aristocratic system in a certain sense of the state there, and the ruling council consists of 5,000 advisers; each of them delivers an elephant to the state. "

All the same, Strabo heard about some state, but describes it as "local", and not as "ours". And, apparently, the ancient authors loved the number 5000. There were 5000 cities between Hypanis and Hidaspus. The council consisted of 5000 advisers. That's really fantastic! The modern Russian State Duma has only 450 deputies.

I think that this is where I will finish my article about a little bit of everything, including about India.

A fragment of the map by Paolo Toscanelli, 1475 was used in the design of the article.

If you find an error, please select a piece of text and press Ctrl + Enter.

At the beginning of the XX century. in archaeological science there is a strong opinion that the homeland of the manufacturing economy, urban culture, writing, in general civilization, is the Middle East. This area, according to the apt definition of the English archaeologist James Breasted, was called the "Fertile Crescent". From here, cultural achievements spread throughout the Old World, west and east. However, new research has made major adjustments to this theory.

The first finds of this kind were made already in the 1920s. XX century. Indian archaeologists Sakhni and Banerjee discovered on the shores of the Indus civilization, which existed simultaneously from the era of the first pharaohs and the era of the Sumerians in the III-II millennia BC. e. (the three most ancient civilizations in the world). A bright culture with magnificent cities, developed crafts and trade, a kind of art appeared before the eyes of scientists. First, archaeologists excavated the largest urban centers of this civilization - Harappu and Mohenjo-Daro. By the name of the first she received name - Harappan civilization... Later, many other settlements were found. Now about a thousand of them are known. They covered the entire valley of the Indus and its tributaries in a continuous network, like a necklace covering the northeastern coast of the Arabian Sea in what is now India and Pakistan.

The culture of ancient cities, large and small, turned out to be so bright and peculiar that researchers had no doubts: this country was not the outskirts of the Fertile Crescent of the World, but an independent one. hotbed of civilization, today a forgotten world of cities. There is no mention of them in written sources, and only the earth has preserved traces their former greatness.

Map. Ancient India - Harappan civilization

History of Ancient India - Protoindisky Indus Valley Culture

Other mystery of ancient Indian civilization- its origin. Scholars continue to debate whether it had local roots or was brought in from the outside, with which there was intensive trade.

Most archaeologists believe that the proto-Indian civilization grew out of local early agricultural cultures that existed in the Indus basin and the neighboring region of Northern Baluchistan. Archaeological discoveries support their point of view. In the foothills closest to the Indus Valley, hundreds of settlements of ancient farmers of the 6th-4th millennia BC were discovered. e.

This transitional zone between the mountains of Baluchistan and the Indo-Gangetic Plain provided the first farmers with everything they needed. The climate was favorable for growing plants during the long warm summer. Mountain streams provided water for irrigation of crops and, if necessary, could be blocked by dams to retain fertile river silt and regulate irrigation of fields. The wild ancestors of wheat and barley grew here, herds of wild buffaloes and goats roamed. The flint deposits provided the raw material for tool making. The convenient location opened up opportunities for trade contacts with Central Asia and Iran in the west and the Indus Valley in the east. This area, like no other, was suitable for the emergence of an agricultural economy.

One of the first agricultural settlements known in the foothills of Baluchistan was called Mergar. Archaeologists have excavated a significant area here and identified seven horizons of the cultural layer in it. These horizons, from the lower, the most ancient, to the upper, dating back to the 4th millennium BC. e., show a complex and gradual path of the origin of agriculture.

In the earliest strata, hunting was the basis of the economy, while agriculture and cattle breeding played a secondary role. Barley was grown. Of the domestic animals, only the sheep was tamed. Then the inhabitants of the settlement did not yet know how to make pottery. Over time, the size of the settlement increased - it stretched along the river, the economy became more complex. Local residents built houses and granaries out of adobe bricks, grew barley and wheat, raised sheep and goats, made pottery and painted it excellently, at first only black, and later with different colors: white, red and black. The pots are decorated with whole processions of animals following each other: bulls, antelopes with branchy horns, birds. Similar images have survived in Indian culture on stone seals. In the farming of farmers, hunting still played an important role, they did not know how to process metal and made their tools out of stone. But a stable economy was gradually formed, developing on the same foundations (primarily on agriculture) as the civilization in the Indus Valley.

During the same period, stable trade relations with neighboring lands were established. This is indicated by the widespread among farmers jewelry made of imported stones: lapis lazuli, carnelian, turquoise from the territory of Iran and Afghanistan.

Mergar's society was becoming highly organized. Public granaries appeared among the houses - rows of small rooms separated by partitions. These warehouses acted as central distribution points for products. The development of society was also expressed in the increase in the wealth of the settlement. Archaeologists have discovered many burials. All residents were buried in rich outfits with jewelry from beads, bracelets, pendants.

Over time, agricultural tribes settled from mountainous regions to river valleys. They mastered the plain irrigated by the Indus and its tributaries. The fertile soil of the valley contributed to the rapid population growth, the development of crafts, trade and agriculture. Settlement grew into cities... The number of cultivated plants increased. The date palm appeared, in addition to barley and wheat, they began to sow rye, grow rice and cotton. Small canals were built to irrigate the fields. We have tamed the local species of cattle - the zebu-shaped bull. So it gradually grew the most ancient civilization of the northwest of Hindustan. At an early stage, scientists distinguish several zones within the range: eastern, northern, central, southern, western and southeastern. Each of them is characterized by its features... But by the middle of the III millennium BC. e. the differences are almost erased, and in the heyday The Harappan civilization entered as a culturally unified organism.

True, there are other facts as well. They bring doubts to the slim the theory of the origin of the Harappan, Indian civilization... Biological studies have shown that the ancestor of the Indus Valley domestic sheep was a wild species that lived in the Middle East. Much in the culture of the early farmers of the Indus Valley brings it closer to the culture of Iran and southern Turkmenistan. By language, scientists establish a connection between the population of Indian cities and the inhabitants of Elam - an area lying east of Mesopotamia, on the Persian Gulf coast. Judging by the appearance of the ancient Indians, they are part of one large community that settled throughout the Middle East - from the Mediterranean Sea to Iran and India.

Putting all these facts together, some researchers have concluded that the Indian (Harappan) civilization is a fusion of various local elements that arose under the influence of Western (Iranian) cultural traditions.

The decline of Indian civilization

The decline of the proto-Indian civilization also remains a mystery awaiting a final decision in the future. The crisis did not start at the same time, but gradually spread throughout the country. Most of all, as evidenced by archaeological data, suffered large centers of civilization located on the Indus. In the capitals of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, it took place in the 18th-16th centuries. BC e. Most likely, decline Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro date from the same period. Harappa lasted only slightly longer than Mohenjo-Daro. The crisis hit the northern regions faster; in the south, far from the centers of civilization, the Harappan traditions lasted longer.

Then many buildings were abandoned, hastily made counters were piled along the roads, new small houses grew on the ruins of public buildings, deprived of many benefits of a dying civilization. Other premises were rebuilt. Used old bricks, selected from destroyed houses. New bricks were not produced. In the cities, there was no longer a clear division into residential and craft quarters. On the main streets there were pottery kilns, which was not allowed in the old days of exemplary order. The number of imported things decreased, which means that external relations weakened and trade fell into decline. Handicraft production decreased, ceramics became coarser, without skillful painting, the number of seals decreased, and metal was used less often.

What appeared the reason for this decline? The most probable reasons seem to be ecological: a change in the level of the seabed, the Indus channel as a result of a tectonic shock, which caused a flood; change in direction of monsoons; epidemics of incurable and possibly previously unknown diseases; droughts due to over-deforestation; soil salinization and the onset of desert as a consequence of large-scale irrigation ...

The enemy invasion played a role in the decline and destruction of the cities of the Indus Valley. It was during this period that the Aryans appeared in Northeast India - tribes of nomads from the Central Asian steppes. Perhaps their invasion became the last straw on the scales of the fate of the Harappan civilization. Due to internal turmoil, the cities were unable to withstand the onslaught of the enemy. Their inhabitants went to look for new, less depleted lands and safe places: to the south, to the sea, and to the east, to the Ganges valley. The remaining population returned to a simple rural lifestyle, as it was a thousand years before these events. It adopted the Indo-European language and many elements of the culture of the nomadic newcomers.

What people looked like in ancient India

What kind of people settled in the Indus Valley? What did the builders of magnificent cities, the inhabitants of ancient India, look like? Two types of direct evidence answer these questions: paleoanthropological materials from Harappan burial grounds and images of ancient Indians - clay and stone sculptures that archaeologists find in cities and small villages. So far, these are the few burials of residents of proto-Indian cities. Therefore, it is not surprising that the conclusions regarding the appearance of the ancient Indians often changed. At first, the racial diversity of the population was assumed. The organizers of the cities revealed the features of the proto-Australoid, Mongoloid, Caucasian races. Later, the opinion was established about the predominance of Caucasoid traits in the racial types of the local population. The inhabitants of the proto-Indian cities belonged to the Mediterranean branch of the great Caucasoid race, i.e. were mostly human dark-haired, dark-eyed, swarthy, with straight or wavy hair, long-headed. They are also depicted in sculptures. Particularly famous is the stone carved figurine of a man in clothes richly decorated with a pattern of trefoils. The face of the sculptural portrait is made with great care. Hair tied with a strap, a thick beard, regular features, half-closed eyes give a realistic portrait of a city dweller,