What does a nomad from Tibet look like? Tibetans: the most shocking facts. Musical instruments made from human bones

You read about Tibetan nomads - and you are surprised: in our time, someone leads such a way of life. They live in unusually difficult natural conditions: firstly, at altitudes of 4-5 thousand meters, where, as you know, the level of oxygen is much lower; secondly, at such heights there is an increased level of solar radiation, which for ordinary people is fraught with dry skin and eye diseases; and finally, very low temperatures (up to -40 in winter) plus a piercing wind. Genetically, over hundreds of years, the body of nomadic Tibetans has adapted to such conditions.

Nomads live in tents made from yak skins or from its felted wool. It lives inside such an awning for several generations and families. The tent has a hearth for cooking (the hole at the top of the tent serves as a chimney), an altar for prayers and some simple kitchen utensils. No tables, chairs, beds or other furniture for you, not to mention the TV.

The life of nomads directly depends on the animals they keep. They divide them into "black" - these are yaks, and "white" - these are sheep and goats. An indicator of prosperity has always been the number of "blacks", rich families could have up to 1000 yak heads. The average family usually has 70 yaks and 200 sheep or goats.
Yak is life for a nomad. It provides material for the construction of the tent, wool for making clothes, dried yak cakes serve as fuel, milk, from which yogurt, cheese and butter are also prepared (by the way, for the Tibetan, "yak milk" sounds the same as for us, for example, "goat's milk", after all, for them, yak is he, and she is called dri) - this is the main diet of a nomad, and dried yak meat is enough for many months of nomadic life.

I must say that the food of the nomads is not diverse. In addition to the already mentioned dairy products and yak meat, the nomads prepare the so-called tsampa every day - this is roasted barley flour, and drink several cups of a special tea prepared with milk, salt and butter.

Nomads live in families, and families where a woman has several husbands, usually brothers, are not rare. Children born in such a marriage are considered the children of the older brother. There is also polygamy, or, for example, a son can share his wife with his father (or father with son, if this is not his mother, but his stepmother). All this is considered normal among nomads. In fact, such marriages are officially prohibited by law, but who is there to follow the law at such heights and in places where there are no official representatives of power. So such marriages are still practiced.

“To see the greatness of the mountain you need to be at a distance from it;
to understand its form, one must go around it;
to feel its state, one should contemplate it,
at dawn and at sunset, at full moon and noon, in sun and rain,
in the snow and during a storm, in winter, summer, autumn and spring.
He who contemplates the mountain thus approaches its life,
as intense and varied as human life"

Lama Anagarika Govinda

Going to Tibet to Kore around Kailash during the new moon, you will find the most amazing and beautiful, mysterious and spiritual - after all, the full moon is a night that symbolizes the triple accumulation of merits and blessings of this circle of life. Throughout the crust around Kailash, we will come across sacred places - self-manifested images of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, guardian spirits of Buddhist teachings, symbols of enlightenment, caves in which Buddhist teachers meditated. The journey will take place with meaning and will lead to spiritual growth and inner prosperity in the future. In Tibet, "Nomads of the Spirit" travel only in the spring. At this time, the Kailash area is always open for pilgrims. The rest of the time we spend unique trips to the sacred places of Central Asia.

We are going to one of the highest mountain regions in the world, so we have to adapt to the environment.
It is very important for us that throughout the trip the members of our team are in good and cheerful condition, because the quality of perception of holy places depends on this. It would be a shame if, having gone on such a long journey, one of us lies all the way and mountain sickness remains the main impression for him.
Therefore, as a result of many years of experience in traveling to Tibet, we managed to draw up a program in such a way that acclimatization takes place without a significant weakening of the body. We are not ahead of the pace of body restructuring in the phase of long-term adaptation and acclimatization is effective and safe. Rely on our experience

Program

1 day

Arrival in Beijing by night or morning flight arrival before 6 am meeting at the airport. Organized city tour departure to the Chinese wall. The Great Wall of China is one of the true wonders of the world, the most grandiose structure ever built by mankind in the entire history of civilization. Tea ceremony. In the evening, departure by train to Xi'an.

2 day

Xi'an is considered to be the cradle of Chinese civilization, one of the most ancient and interesting cities in China. Xi'an is already 3,100 years old and has been the capital of China for 1,300 years. We are watching the Terracotta Army of Emperor Qinshi Huang. One of the most significant monuments of world culture. After lunch we check into the hotel for rest.

3 day

Departure to Lhasa. We will be met at the airport by an interpreter and a Tibetan guide. Rest at the hotel. Accommodation in the historical center of Lhasa.

Day 4

The morning will start at sunrise and with a visit to the main monastery of Lhasa, the Jokhang, built in 647. Next, we will visit the majestic Potala Palace, which is still the tallest building in Lhasa. From the roof of the palace, the best panorama of Lhasa and the valley at the foot of the snow-covered Himalayas will open.

Day 5

Departure to the kora to Ganden Monastery - a monastery on Mount Wangbur, 47 km from Lhasa, one of the largest Buddhist monasteries and the famous university of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism.

Day 6

Transfer to Shigatse through the Kamba-la pass to the sacred lake Yamdrok-tso, which has an unusual turquoise color, further to Gyantse. Excursion to the Pelkor-Chode monastery and the largest Buddhist stupa in Western Tibet - the temple of a thousand images of Buddhas - Kumbum. After lunch, we leave for the city of Shigatse.

Day 7

Shigatse is the largest center for the study of Buddhist philosophy in Tibet. At dawn we visit the Tashilhunpo Monastery - the residence of the Panchen Lam of Tibet. Excursion to Tashilhunpo Monastery, in one of the temples there is an impressive 26-meter statue of Maitreya - the coming Buddha. Moving to Saga

Day 8

Gradually the sacred Kailash is getting closer. One of the most beautiful days of our trip. Luxurious and diverse Tibetan landscape accompanies us all day today. Transfer to the life-giving lake in the shadow of Kailash - Manasarovar. A panorama of Kailash opens. Overnight in the village of Monsher in a hospitable Tibetan family

Day 9

Early in the morning we leave for Shangshung. We bathe in hot springs. Trekking to the Silver Palace of Garuda, an ancient cave city that flourished in pre-Buddhist times and was the capital of the Shangshung Empire. The first information about the settlement of people in this area dates back to 2800 BC. Snow-white travertine baths-shells of hot mineral springs have been preserved, which, according to legend, have a rejuvenating effect. We will also make a kora around the monastery located in the area of Tritapuri. According to the legends of the Tibetans, bypassing Tritapuri is equivalent to the crust around Kailash. This is the place where Tibetan yogis achieved realization. The place where Tilopa, Naropa, Marpa, Milarepa appear in subtle bodies. In the evening transfer to Tsaparang, where we will spend the night.

Day 10

In the morning, excursion to the cave city of Tsaparang, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Guge (9-17th century). Its ruins contain 879 caves and over 450 rooms. Near Tsaparang there is an ancient Tholing monastery in the 11th century, the great Indian teacher Atisha preached there. Arrival in Darchen We return along the most beautiful loess canyon - this is one of the most breathtaking sights of Tibet. Accommodation in a hotel in the high-mountainous village of Darchen (Internet, shower, altitude 4700 m). Rest and preparation for Kora. During this time, we have already sufficiently adapted to the highlands. Our karma and consciousness are ready for purification.

Day 11

5000 m. Bark. Way to Kailash. In the morning, the bypass of Mount Kailash begins in a clockwise direction (bark), 54 km long. u Full Moon, a full moon kora in Buddhist astrology, is a triple accumulation of merit for the pilgrim - one outer kora counts as three. On the way, we are accompanied by yak-sherpas who will carry our luggage. The path runs along the valley of the Lhachu River (River of the Gods), past the Chuku Monastery and ends opposite the Dira Puk Monastery. The most beautiful view of the northern slope of Mount Kailash opens from here. Throughout the crust around Kailash there are sacred objects. During the full moon, we will be able to observe the largest lunar disk. We spend the night in a new hotel - a guest house.

day 12

5666 m. The second day of the bark. The path is gradually gaining height. Today we pass the highest pass of the Green Tara, 5660 m. A spiritual rebirth takes place on the pass, a new life begins, we symbolically throw off our old clothes (and with them everything else that weighs us down). From the pass we descend past the holy lake Gaurikund to the Zutul Phuk monastery, which was built on the site of a cave where the great Tibetan yogi saint, Milarepa, meditated. We will be able to touch the imprint of his hand, which he left in the stone, and practice meditation. We spend the night in a new hotel - a guest house.

day 13

4800 m. Kora. The final day of the bark. Continuing the descent along the eastern side of Mount Kailash, a view of the Gurla Mandata peak opens, we return to Darchen. After the kora we will head to the sacred lake Manasarovar. We will stop for the night in a guest house on the shore of the lake. Bathing in the lake and in hot springs will give us strength, we will be able to have a good rest and recover for the continuation of the journey. We have lunch and rest. We spend the night in a guest house on Lake Manasarovar.

Day 14

In the morning we will visit the Buddhist temple of Chiu, towering over the turquoise surface of the sacred lake Manasarovar. This is a famous and significant monastery, which houses the lifetime sculpture of Buddha-Chomdente. The great yogi and poet Milarepa meditated in it more than once. Only from the top of this monastery opens a fantastic view of both lakes Rakshas Tal (Lhang-tso) and Manasarovar and the magnificent snow-capped peaks of Kailash and Gurla Mandata. This monastery is very revered by pilgrims, and in its stone depths there is an even more sacred, sacral place. This is the cave where Guru Rinpoche, the Bodhisattva Padmasabhava, spent the last seven days of his life on Earth. Road home along the Himalayas. Transfer to the Tibetan village of Saga. Accommodation in a new hotel.

day 15

Return to Shigatse. In the evening, walk through the old town and the modern part of the city, where there are many shops. You can buy souvenirs and colorful decorations. There is a wide variety of handmade Buddhist souvenirs, oriental-style fabrics made of silver, coral and pearls, antiques and artifacts.

Day 16

Departure from Shigatse to Saga

day 17

Our wonderful trip to Tibet is coming to an end. We return home bringing with us new impressions, new stories, new memories at the same time, leaving a piece of ourselves in Tibet, we never return the same as we left.

Day 18

The road to the airport along the picturesque coast of the Brahmaputra. After lunch, flight to Beijing.

Eight Auspicious Causes of the Kora with "Spirit Nomads":

We will visit the intersection points of the most important faults, where there are powerful, ultra-deep, rooted to the mantle channels, through which the energy exchange between the Earth and the Cosmos is carried out.
On this journey, we will visit three main places - Shanshung, Manasarovar, Tritapuri, where there are living fractures of the earth's crust - the strongest energy places on the Planet.
Travel-pilgrimage is not only the discovery of unknown countries and cultures. Journey-pilgrimage is a semantic transition between the inner and outer "I".
Going to Tibet to Kore around Kailash during the new moon, you will find the most amazing and beautiful, mysterious and spiritual - after all, the full moon is a night that symbolizes the triple accumulation of merits and blessings of this circle of life.
Throughout the entire kora around Kailash, we will see sacred places - self-manifested images of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, guardian spirits of Buddhist teachings, symbols of enlightenment, caves in which Buddhist teachers meditated. The journey will take place with meaning and will lead to spiritual growth and prosperity in the future.
In Tibet, "Nomads of the Spirit" travel only in spring and autumn. At this time, the Kailash area is always open for pilgrims. The rest of the time we travel to the sacred places of Central Asia.
We thought over the program in such a way that acclimatization takes place without significant weakening of the body. We are not ahead of the pace of body restructuring in the phase of long-term adaptation and acclimatization is effective and safe.
Eight good reasons to travel to Tibet with Spirit Nomads:
- The program is planned in such a way as to meet the full moon on Tritapuri and on the day of the new moon to make a bark around this sacred place where karmic debts are cleared and a new life begins.
- The program is built in the most interesting way and includes all the most important iconic sacred places. In addition to impressions and excellent photos, you will receive complete information on the history of Tibet since prehistoric times.
- During the trip, you will get acquainted with the methods of Buddhist practices and meditation. Meet the abbots of the monasteries and practicing lamas. We will spend four blessed days near Kailash, recharged by the most powerful energy force of the World.
- The “right” price makes this amazing journey possible for many. We do not earn money on a pilgrimage to Tibet. We help seekers of spiritual growth and enlightenment make the most unique journey of their lives.
- The most important thing is health. Short programs through Nepal do not allow proper acclimatization, and participants often experience headaches, do not get enough sleep at night, and sleep is very important for recovery!
In our programs, we use the correct acclimatization methodology, thanks to which overweight people and even elderly people (70 years old) performed the kora around Kailash, and returned with new experience and excellent health.
- We value comfort in every journey. Therefore, the trip to Tibet will be organized as conveniently as possible: we select guest houses, take care of food and good rest for the participants of the bark, hire Sherpas and yaks to transport luggage.
- Group leader: professional traveler, researcher of Central Asia - Vyacheslav Kiplyuks. From 2002 to 2016, he conducted more than 30 successful expeditions in the Gobi Desert and in the mountains of Tibet, including those under the projects of the GEO and Mir Baikal magazines.

Living conditions

Accommodation in comfortable, good, clean hotels *** for 2 people in guest houses accommodation for 3-4 people.

Food

Meals breakfasts in hotels. In settlements, we eat in guest houses where we live. On the way to roadside cafes and eateries. On trekking, an additional dry ration is given for lunch.
Have a snack with you by buying nuts, dried fruits, chocolate, a jar of red caviar, biscuits in advance.

Responsibility rule. In the group, all people are adults who are responsible for themselves. First of all, for preparing your equipment and your morale. Carefully read the list of equipment for the program, collect or purchase everything you need. Gather your thoughts, tune in to a successful, interesting, significant journey, come in a good mood.
Members of the group help in setting up the camp, and other general affairs.
The program may be slightly adjusted depending on weather and other conditions and security considerations at the discretion of the team leader.

personal equipment for average temperature difference day, night from +10C to +30C city, and from -7 C to +14C day night, high mountains there can be sudden changes in snow-wind temperature
personal first-aid kit, medicines that you use always or often are required (a complete list is sent on request).
folding knife, cup, mug, metal thermos (0.5-1 liter).
trekking poles (remember, this is your safety)
sleeping bag warm
backpack 60-80 liters and small backpack 20-25 liters
mountain trekking boots (preferably by Mammut or Lowa) and thermal socks for them (can be replaced with woolen ones) several pairs.
change of footwear (sneakers).
warm jacket, windbreaker, hat, thermal underwear.
trekking clothing: windproof jacket and pants, fleece sweater, ski pants.
sunglasses (2 pcs.).
headdress from the sun and wind.
sunscreen (minimum SPF 35, preferably 50).
headlamp and spare batteries.
some souvenirs, small gifts for Tibetan children.

If you have additional questions about equipment or any other questions, please ask the group leader at least one week before the start of the trip.

Group equipment

a device for measuring pressure
group first aid kit

Important

If the Tourist and Excursion Administration of the People's Republic of China and responsible state organizations close Western Tibet without warning and explanation of reasons and suspend, delay or refuse to issue permits to foreign tourists, then the expedition program is replaced with an alternative one.

Vyacheslav Kiplyuks"World of Travel" http://www.infpol.ru/kartina-dnya/itemlist/category/30-vyacheslav-kiplyuks.html
Sergey Volkov "Tibet. On the Roof of the World, ed. "Keeper", M. 2008
Alexandra David-Nil "Mystics and magicians of Tibet", ed. "Yauza", M. 2002
Lama Anagarika Govinda "The Way of the White Clouds", ed. "Sphere", M. 2004
Redko A., Balalaev S. Tibet-Kailash. Mysticism and reality

Price

Included in cost:

Accommodation in Beijing (2 days - 2 nights);
Train Beijing - Lhasa in a reserved seat, if possible, you can take a compartment for an additional $ 70;
(Attention! There are no tickets for free sale, independent purchase is not possible)
Accommodation in Xi'an
Registration of permits (special permits) to visit Tibet;
Jeeps or Toyota-Hyundai minibus for a group of up to 10 people or a bus for a group of more than 10 people;
All necessary group transfers according to the program;
hotel ***, **** - double accommodation, Beijing Lhasa and Shigatse, on the rest of the route guesthouses - campsites - accommodation for 3-4 people per room;
Breakfasts in hotels;
Professional local guide;
Professional English speaking guide;
All permits and entrance fees according to the program;
Excursions, entrance tickets to national parks, museums and temples according to the program
Hiring porters or yaks for Kora around Kailash;
First aid kit.

The price does not include:

Chinese visa for 30 days;
Medical insurance (It is mandatory!) (it is strongly recommended to check the state of health before the trip, consult);
lunches, dinners, drinks (about $250 for the whole trip);
tips for a Tibetan guide, drivers, bark porters (not less than $25 per person); personal expenses (fee for photography, video filming, emergency evacuation, etc.);
extra days in Beijing or Lhasa.
transfers outside the group.

Payment order:

In recent years, Oriental studies have faced the question of the historical role of the nomadic tribes of Central Asia and the southern Russian steppes and their influence on the ancient centers of culture in the Mediterranean and the Far East.

The great nomadic empires, which once occupied vast geographical areas, remain almost unexplored to this day. The historical chronicles and literary documents of their neighbors are replete with information about the border nomadic tribes, their history, customs, and testify to the amazing impact produced by the grandiose events that played out over the vast expanses of Inner Asia.

The only monuments to their movements are the numerous groups of grave mounds that cover the boundless Russian-Asiatic steppes. Most of these burials are still waiting for their researchers.

The great interest generated by the remarkable, unique stylization characteristic of nomadic art, as well as the wide distribution of this style among the various tribal groups of Inner Asia and its enormous influence on the art of neighboring cultures, raised the issue of the cultural role of nomads. Nomadic studies - this new branch of Eastern archeology - must in the future restore the picture of the nomadic world, this link between the cultures of ancient China, India and the Mediterranean basin.

A wide belt of burial mounds left by nomadic tribes, stretching from the Hungarian Plain to Western China, has only been partially studied. The archeology of the Central Asian nomads is in its infancy. Most of the Central Asian expeditions were limited to exploring the "urban" cultures located along the great caravan routes that connected Ancient China with the countries of the Middle East.

Countless mounds of southern Russia have long attracted the attention of researchers. Russian scientists were the first in this exciting field of historical science, they also have priority in other areas of the archeology of Inner Asia.

Separate archaeological research was also carried out in the steppes north of the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea, in the Semirechye region, in the Russian Altai [excavations of Academician V.V. Radlov near the village of Katanda (See: A. Zakharov. Antiquities of Katanda - Altai, pp. 37-57, works of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. LV, January-June 1925) and the most recent work of Professor Rudenko], in the Minusinsk steppes (basin Yenisei), in Transbaikalia (excavations by Dr. Talko-Gryntsevich), and, finally, rich finds of Xiongnu burials were made by the expedition of General P.K. Kozlov in the Noin-Ula mountains in Northern Mongolia. Numerous burials remain unexplored, scattered along the grassy spurs of the Tarbagatai and Dzhair mountain ranges, along the northern spurs of the Tien Shan, the Dzhungar steppes, the Mongolian Altai, the deserted ridges of Karlyk-Taga and their Gobi extension, the rocky ridge of Koko-Tyumyurteyin-ula, along the Uryankhai mountains, Western Mongolia (the Khangai mountain system) and in the almost unexplored Kerulen river valley in Eastern Mongolia. A belt of steppe and mountain pastures stretches across the whole of Central Asia - the cradle of powerful nomadic unions. Until recently, it was believed that the southern boundary of the burial mound belt runs along the Tien Shan and several parallel ridges of the Mongolian Altai, penetrating far into the depths of the Gobi desert.

In recent years, the southern border of nomadic burial grounds has moved significantly to the south and southeast. Successful research by Dr. J.G. Anderson discovered a rich nomadic culture in the Ordos region (Southern Mongolia), in the eastern part of Gansu and on the Sino-Tibetan border.

In 1925-1928. Central Asian expedition of Academician N.K. Roerich, who surveyed nomadic burials in Chinese Turkestan, Altai, Western Mongolia and Tibet, managed to find traces of the “animal” style among the nomadic tribes of Northern and Central Tibet and thereby move the southern border of its distribution significantly south, to the northern slopes of the Trans-Himalayas. The desert highlands of Tibet unexpectedly turned out to be rich in the remains of an ancient nomadic culture that has been preserved in the life of modern Tibetan nomads. The finds of several "animal" motifs, well known from the Scythian-Siberian mounds, once again underlined the ancient connection that once existed between Tibet and the rich nomadic world of Inner Asia and which is repeatedly mentioned in the historical chronicles of China.

The peripheral regions of southern and eastern Tibet, with their deep and narrow river valleys, are bordered to the north and northeast by high grassy uplands inhabited for centuries by nomadic tribes. This belt of grassy steppe at an average elevation of 13,000 to 15,000 feet is commonly referred to by the native Tibetan geographers as "doc," which means pasture, or uncultivated land at high altitude, unsuitable for agriculture. Hence the word "dok-pa" - a nomad, a cattle breeder. This high-mountainous belt of meadows is sparsely populated by several nomadic tribes - the Nya-rong-wa, ch "angpa (northerners), horas, panags and goloks, the latter of which do not represent an ethnically homogeneous group, but were formed from discontented people who fled from areas subject to China and government of the Dalai Lama.All these tribes retained a primitive nomadic culture and archaic forms of Tibetan speech, a detailed study of which will shed light on the phonetic structure of the ancient Tibetan language.

Modern science is of the opinion that the upper reaches of the Yellow River in Western China were the cradle of the Tibetan-Chinese race. The ancestors of modern Tibetans entered the country from the northeast. The high plateau of Kokunor and the mountains surrounding it provided ample pastures. It was from this vast region that the hordes of ancient Tibetans, driven out by another tribe and forced to seek new pastures, descended along the river valleys of Southeastern Tibet. The geographical conditions of the country forced the nomads to engage in agriculture. Thus was born that peculiar theocratic culture of Tibet, which today remains the only untouched civilization of Asia. The valleys of the Tsang-po (Brahmaputra), Kyi-chu, Nyang-chu and Yarlung rivers became the centers of Tibetan state building.

But the south was not the only destination for Tibetan migration; another powerful group of Tibetan nomadic tribes, moving from the Kokunor region through the northern highlands, came across the powerful Nyen-chen-Tangla range and was forced to turn west along the northern spurs of the Trans-Himalayas in search of a convenient passage through the mountains to the basin of the Tsang-po, or Brahmaputra. The great pilgrimage route leading from Nagchu through the regions of Namru and Nagchang to the sacred peak of Kailash, in all likelihood, represents the route of the ancient migration of Tibetan tribes far to the west of the Tibetan Plateau. These nomadic tribes brought with them the original art of the nomadic Central Asia, a characteristic feature of which is the so-called "animal" style. The historical chronicles of China contain rich information about the nomads of the Tibetan borderlands. We know about their migrations, their alliances with the Huns and raids on Chinese territory. The chronicles of the Han Dynasty contain a lot of information about the Tibetan frontier tribes, the Qiangs. The Chinese emperors of the Han era tried in every way to prevent the conclusion of alliances between the Xiongnu and the Qiang mountain tribes. In the course of numerous military operations aimed at pacifying the border and restoring the security of the trade caravan route to Chinese Turkestan, their main task was to isolate the Tibetan tribes from the Huns.

Period of the 11th and 12th centuries. was the heyday of Xi-xia, or the Tangut kingdom, which occupied the lowlands of Gansu and vast areas of Inner Mongolia (the Etsing-gol basin—Western Alashan).

Over the following centuries, waves of Mongol invasions drove the nomadic Tibetan (Tangut) tribes into the mountains of the Kukunor region and the upper reaches of the Yellow River.

The nomads of modern Tibet constitute a completely separate part of the country's population. A detailed linguistic and ethnographic study of these tribes will undoubtedly provide much important information and complete the picture of early migrations within Inner Asia.

Central Asian expedition of Professor N.K. Roerich managed to discover a number of interesting monuments of the distant nomadic past. The attached map of Tibet (shows the location of the ancient monuments. All discovered monuments can be divided into three groups.

1. Burials (stone graves, mounds).

2. Megalithic structures (menhirs, cromlechs, rows of menhirs).

3. Items in the "animal" style, found in burial grounds, as well as found in the modern everyday life of nomads.

From the above classification, it can be seen that all finds can be divided into archaeological and ethnographic.

Let's start our review of the antiquities of nomadic Tibet with stone graves.

The burial is completely unknown to the nomads of modern Tibet. They either expose the dead on mountain tops, or throw them into lakes and rivers, or follow the common Tibetan custom of cutting the body into pieces and leaving them to be eaten by vultures, which abound in the Tibetan highlands. Old Tibetan literature describes the custom of burying the body in "stone tombs," or burial chambers made of large stone slabs, but no traces of such burials in stone chambers have been found, although the possibility of their presence cannot be denied.

The burials discovered in northern Tibet belong to the type of stone graves well known from excavations in northern Mongolia, Transbaikalia and Altai. Stone or tiled graves are called graves, fenced with slabs or flat boulders. The expedition encountered similar burials in the Khor or Jya-de area in Namru and in the border strip with the neighboring Nagchang area south of the Pangong cho-cha salt lake. No stone graves have been found along the southern shores of the Great Salt Lakes Ngantse-cho and Dangra-yim-cho, although the local nomadic population knew about "stones (rdo) located around."

It is interesting to note that the area of distribution of stone graves coincides with the area of distribution of megalithic structures and finds of objects in the "animal" style, as well as characteristic bronze arrowheads. In most cases, stone graves in Northern Tibet are found in small groups of two or three graves. Large cemeteries like the northern Mongolian ones have not been found in Tibet. As in Mongolia, stone graves and megalithic structures are found mainly on the southern slopes of the mountains. (Compare a similar observation by G.I. Borovka: Northern Mongolia. P. 1927. P. 44).

When describing the stone graves of Tibet, a comparison involuntarily suggests itself with similar burials in Northern Mongolia.

In northern Mongolia, burials can be divided into 4 groups.

1. Graves with fences made of stone slabs. These graves should be attributed to the Scythian-Siberian culture of the 7th-5th centuries. BC e.

2. Tumulos (mounds) with a stone embankment.

3. Graves with a pile of stones on top and a stone fence, the so-called kereksury. In all likelihood, these graves belong to the Turkic period of Mongolia (7th and 8th centuries AD).

4. Turkic princely graves with stone figures ("women"). Dated to V1I-VIII centuries. n. e.

The graves discovered in Tibet belong to the group of stone graves with a fence made of stone slabs. On its way, the expedition encountered only stone graves: the Kereksurs are completely unknown. It is interesting to note that the surveyed Tibetan burials are similar to the earliest types of burials in Northern Mongolia and the Altai Mountains. Figures 1-2 represent a typical Northern Tibetan stone grave. In Rati (Nagchang region) five such graves were found, of which three had a heavily damaged stone fence, smaller stones were carried away by local nomads to build very curious conical structures that looked like beehives and served as storage facilities. It is interesting to note the peculiar headdress of local women in the form of an oval tiara (kokoshnik), ornamented with copper plates in the "animal" style, precious stones and turquoise. The anthropological type of local nomads is different from their neighbors.

The stone graves of the northern highlands of Tibet (the regions of Khor, Namru, eastern Nagchang) have a close-set oval-shaped fence, the corner stones protrude somewhat. All examined graves are oriented in the east-west direction.

The dimensions of the graves in most cases are 2.75 x 3.00 m. ). Most of the graves have been destroyed by rodents, which abound in the grassy belt of the Tibetan Plateau. The only items found in the graves are three-bladed arrowheads. The found arrowheads are divided into the following types.

1. Bronze three-bladed arrowheads. The most common type (Fig. 3.1).

2. Bronze three-bladed straight arrowheads. Places of finds: Doring, Rati (Fig. 3. II).

3. Bronze three-bladed arrowheads. Places of finds: area Khor, Doring, Rati, Chokhor (Fig. 3. III).

All the above types of arrowheads have their analogues among the arrowheads described by Paul Pay (Paul Rau) in his book Die Graber der friihen Eisenzeit im unteren Wolgagebiet. Pokrowsk, 1929, pl. I, II, III and related to the early archaic and late archaic periods according to the Pay chronology. It is not yet possible to speak about the exact dating of Tibetan arrowheads.

4. Copper three-blade leaf-shaped arrowheads. Rarely found. Apparently, they belong to a later period (Fig. 3. IV).

5. Iron flat leaf-shaped arrowheads (Fig. 3. V).

6. Iron flat leaf-shaped arrowheads. Found on Chinese-made arrows. A very common type of tip in Eastern Tibet (modern era, Fig. 3. VI).

At present, it is very difficult to date Tibetan stone burials. The local nomads showed me the skulls found in the graves. These finds indicate that those buried in these stone graves belonged to some long-headed race, which, perhaps, should be connected with the long-headed burials in Uryankhai and the Minusinsk steppes.

It is not without interest to trace the analogy between the stone graves of northern Tibet and the so-called Dardic graves discovered by Moravian missionaries in the area of Teu-gser-po in the vicinity of Leh, the capital of Little Tibet, or Ladakh.

The late Dr. A.G. Franke, one of the best experts on Western Tibetan traditions and antiquities, gave a brief description of these graves in his monumental Antiquities of Indian Tibet (vol. I, p. 71). The walls of the graves were lined with unhewn stones. The excavated graves contained numerous handmade earthenware vessels containing bones. Many graves contained several skulls. Dr. A.G. Franke suggests that we are dealing here with the ancient custom of cutting the body into pieces and separating the flesh from the bones. As you know, this custom was very common among the ancient Tibetan tribes, as evidenced by Chinese historical chronicles. According to Dr. A.G. Franke, the pots were originally placed along the walls of the graves on wooden shelves, which later rotted away.

In addition to vessels and skulls, the missionaries found numerous household items made of bronze: plaques, pendants, beads.

Dr. A.G. Franke notes that almost all skulls had dolichocephalic indices. The scientist attributes the graves to the Dardic period, but at the present time it is still impossible to decide on the belonging of the graves. The missionaries had to interrupt the excavations, and after the departure of Dr. Franke from Ladakh, interest in the antiquities of Western Tibet dried up. We are of the opinion that the Ladakh burials are directly related to the stone graves found in northern Tibet, and that they belong to an ancient dolichocephalic race that once inhabited the highlands of Tibet and whose traces are found throughout Central Asia and in the Siberian border lands. The issue requires further development and detailed examination of Tibetan burials.

It is very difficult to draw parallels between the stone graves of Northern Tibet and Northern Mongolia and Altai, although the fact of clear analogies between both types of burials should be noted. The insufficient number of finds does not allow for a comparative study, and further research in this area is to be expected. Professor V.V. Radlov, in his monumental Atlas of Mongolian Antiquities, points out that the type of stone graves in Northern Mongolia resembles Bronze Age burials discovered in the Yenisei valley. There are also well-known analogies with the burials excavated by Dr. Talko-Gryntsevich in Transbaikalia.

Recent excavations by the scientific curator of the Hermitage, Dr. G.I. Borovki in northern Mongolia (archaeological exploration in the valley of the Tola River southwest of Urga) showed that the stone graves belong to the Scytho-Siberian culture.

At present, we have to limit ourselves to the assertion that the Tibetan stone burials belong to an ancient long-headed nomadic people and belong to the period preceding the 7th century BC. n. e., to what time do the first detailed written information about the tribes of the Tibetan Plateau belong.

Archaeological reconnaissance in order to find burials should have been continued in the upper reaches of the Yellow River and in the Kukunor area. Unfortunately, archaeologists still neglect this important area, and we have no information about the archaeological sites of those places.

During the stop of the expedition N.K. Roerich in the Nanshan Mountains to the north of the Tsaidam salt marshes, I reconnoitered the mountain pastures in search of ancient monuments, but without any particular results. The local Mongols-Khoshuts had no idea about the monuments of the pre-Buddhist period. However, exploration should be resumed, paying particular attention to the areas of Baga and Ikhe Khaltyn-gol, where, according to the local population, there are burials.

The expedition made an archaeological survey of the Shibochen oasis, but the only monuments found in the area were pre-Buddhist caves and stupas, as well as ruined Chinese fortresses and watchtowers.

The second type of ancient monuments found on the highlands of northern Tibet are megalithic structures. This kind of monuments is represented by the following types: 1) menhirs, 2) cromlechs, 3) rows of menhirs.

4. A copper plaque depicting a double-headed eagle in a circle (Location: Ching-Kar west of Nagchu. Plates depicting double-headed eagles were found in the Kuban mounds of the North Caucasus. The motif with a double-headed eagle can be traced back to the Hittite art of Asia Minor.

Such cases and plaques in the "animal" style we met only among the nomads chorus. Chang-pa nomads of the Great Lakes region use ordinary flint cases decorated with coral, turquoise and metal studs - silver and copper, less often gold.

5. An image of a running deer on the lid of a copper case for an amulet found in the Derge region (Now it is in the collection of S.N. Roerich.

Images of the "eight lucky signs" of the Tibetan ornament alternate with images of running deer (Fig. 6). The figure of a deer undoubtedly belongs to the great nomadic art, characterized by an "animal" style. The deer's head is turned backwards, a common motif among Scythian and Siberian antiquities. The interpretation of the muzzle and eyes of the animal has numerous analogues among the known finds in the burial mounds of southern Siberia and the southern Russian steppes.

Rice. 6 and 7. The following example is taken from a silver-plated iron pencil case from Derge. On a pencil case made of massive iron, among the usual floral ornaments, a stylized figure of a lying deer is visible. The motif of lying deer (Fig. 7), moose is well known from the Scythian and Siberian antiquities (see the tables by G.I. Borovka in Scythian Art, Bern, London, 1928). The figure of the swan (Fig. 8) is already strongly influenced by the Chinese art of ornamentation. This figure is the product of a Chinese workshop that produces art crafts for neighboring tribes. It is interesting to note that the figure of the swan on our pencil case coincides in almost every detail with the figure of a long-necked bird (a swan?) with outstretched wings seen on the fragment found by General P.K. Kozlov in the mountains of Noin-Ula (the fragment was presented on Table VIII of the Brief Report published by the Academy of Sciences, 1925). The posture of the bird and the execution of the wings are similar in both cases. The left wing is raised, the right wing is lowered and forms an acute angle. Undoubtedly, both figures come from a common Central Asian source and represent some mythical images.

8. A wonderful example of the Tibetan "animal" style is in the collection of S.N. Roerich (). He drew my attention to a silvered iron relief plate from Derge in northeastern Tibet. This unique item is a figure of a lion with its head turned to the left towards the viewer. The mane of the animal hangs down in thick strands. An unusually powerful interpretation of the body of the animal. The lion is depicted sitting on its hind legs, with its tail raised, as if attracted by some kind of noise and ready to jump. The background is formed by two stylized trees. Under the figure of a lion, highly stylized hills are visible.

It is difficult to determine the purpose of this plate. Through two rectangular holes on its edges, a piece of leather could be passed under the plate. The plate could serve as a pectoral decoration or a belt buckle. Among the items found by Kozlov's expedition in mounds in the Noin-Ula mountains, there is a relief metal plate depicting a standing bull with its head lowered and turned to the left.

When comparing these plates, a great similarity of the compositions is obvious. On both plates, the main figure is an animal standing with its left side to the viewer and with its head turned towards him. It is difficult to say whether a yak is depicted on Kozlov's plate. I tend to think it's a bison. The execution of the animal skin in both cases is similar. Both plates have a background in the form of two stylized trees. On a plate from the collection of S.N. Roerich, two trees with branches hanging over the head of a lion serve as a background. Such trees suggest a country with a warm climate, while Kozlov's plate depicts pine trees, which indicates the northern origin of the object.

It seems that both plates convey the "animal" motif common in the art of the nomads of Inner Asia, but the plate with a lion was made in the southern part of this province with artistic traditions, and the plate with a bison was made on its northern outskirts. On both plates there is a strongly stylized image of mountains, possibly covered with forests. The English archaeologist Percyval Yeats in his article about Kozlov substantiates the opinion (The Burlington Magazine, vol. XLVIII, April 1926, p. 168-185, for the plate, see Plate IV, J of the article) that the plaque found by Kozlov served as a falar, or harness decoration. He draws attention to the similarity with the images on the Sasanian silver dish found in the upper reaches of the Kama.

An ancient plate from the collection of S.N. Roerich is a vivid example of the great art of the nomadic tribes of Northern Tibet and in the vast metal-working region of Derge and Amdo. [Plate P.K. Kozlov is presented in additional tables (I) of the Brief Report of the Kozlov Expedition, Leningrad, 1925, edition of the USSR Academy of Sciences].

Metal decorations depicting figures of animals and birds are often found on the belts of Tibetan nomads. The expedition's collection contains several belts richly decorated with silver and copper ornaments. We have already mentioned that the influence of the Central Asian nomadic Iranians is clearly visible in the armament of the nomadic tribes. The Chinese cavalry, created in the Han era, borrowed their weapons and tactics from the nomads who constantly threatened the western edge of China.

The long straight sword of the Chinese cavalry of this era is akin to the Sarmatian swords of southern Russia and the nomadic tribes of Central Asia (Iranians and Indo-Scythians) (cf .: Prof. M.I. Rostovtsev. Central Asia, Russia, China and the “animal style”. Seminarium Kondakovianum Prague, 1929. Chapter Ill; Waldemar Ginters: Das Schwert der Skythen und Sarmaten in Slid Russland, Berlin, 1928, s.75).

At the end of IV - beginning of III century. BC e. The light cavalry of the Scythians and Huns, whose main weapons were bows and arrows, were replaced by heavy cavalry, protected by armor and armed with long straight swords and heavy spears. The carriers of new weapons and new cavalry tactics were the Iranian tribes. This Iranian culture brought new elements to nomadic art. The unusually wide settlement of Iranian tribes brought with it the "animal" style. The "animal" style, which appeared in China during the Han era, belongs to the Sarmatian period. Tibetan nomadic tribes, who have long been in contact with the Chinese, Huns and Indo-Scythians, adopted this new weaponry and have kept it to this day.

We single out the following types of existing Tibetan swords.

1. A sword with a long handle, was in service with the Tibetan infantry before the introduction of modern weapons in the troops of the Lhasa government. The length of the sword is about one meter.

Usually this kind of sword is called among the Tibetans pa-dam (dpa "-dam). These swords were worn by foot soldiers either on their backs or in front, stuck in their belts. The blade is iron, the end is beveled. The scabbard is usually wooden, rarely covered with leather. The hilt is often fitted leather or tightly wrapped with copper wire (Scandinavian swords had hilts wrapped in silver wire. Cf.: Birger Nerman. A.P. Kalitinsky, who drew my attention to this work).

The pommel, as well as the crosshair, are often decorated with a silver notch, rarely with turquoise or metal ornaments. The crosshair is straight, but often oval. The lanyard is attached either to the pommel or to the hilt. Long-handled swords are comparatively rare and almost completely obsolete. The author of these lines had to see several similar swords in the Chag-lung Khar fortress in the Namru region.

2. A sword with a long handle, or "tee" (gn), which is in service with the cavalry or infantry (Fig. 9). It is worn in front, tucked into the belt, and the length of the sword corresponds to the length of the rider's outstretched arm. The usual length of the sword is about one meter. The handle is often covered with leather or made of wood. The pommel and crosshair (straight) are often decorated with turquoise, stones or metal plates and ornaments. The blade is iron. The end of the blade is beveled, like on Chinese swords.

Among the types of ornaments, floral and geometric patterns predominate. The scabbard is covered with leather. The upper and lower parts of the scabbard are also decorated with turquoise, stones and metal ornaments. The lanyard is attached either to the pommel or to the hilt. This very common type of sword goes directly to the Sarmatian swords of the Han era. Swords with a straight crosshair were widely used: they were known to the Indo-Scythians of India, as well as in Chinese Turkestan of the 6th-7th centuries. n. e. (cf. frescoes of Kizil and Kumtur, Kucha oasis).

3. Sword with a short handle, or "re-ti" (ral-gri) (Fig. 10). It is in service with the cavalry and infantry. It is also worn on the front. The hilt and scabbard are covered with metal ornaments and decorated with turquoise and stones. Widespread motifs are floral ornament, Chinese dragon, groups of fantastic animals. The scabbard is covered with leather. The blade is iron. The end of the blade is pointed. Type 2 and 3 swords in some areas of Kam (Eastern Tibet) are worn on the left side on a belt attached to the belt.

4. The saber (gog-lang) is mainly worn by high-ranking riders. Usually it is fastened to the saddle under the left leg of the rider. The saber hilt and the ends of the scabbard are often decorated with metal ornaments, turquoise and stones. Chinese ornament prevails. The sharp end of the blade is slightly curved. The saber is borrowed from China and is especially common in Eastern Tibet.

Another weapon of the Tibetans is the spear. Tibetan nomads use two types of spears.

1. Heavy spear, narrow, made of iron. Length 7 to 10 feet.

2. Dart, or short spear. Length 5 feet. The shaft is tightly wrapped with an iron cord. An iron ring slides along the shaft, to which a belt or strong rope is attached. Before throwing, the rider holds the dart in his raised hand. When throwing a spear, a belt is not released from the hand, forcing the iron ring to slide along the shaft. The flight distance of the dart is equal to the length of the strap. Such a spear is used by nomads in equestrian combat and only in close combat. This use of edged weapons gave the Tibetans a devastating cavalry, seeking to defeat the enemy in close combat.

Modern nomadic cavalry combat consists of flank attacks. Flying units of archers are unknown to the Tibetans. The bow is rarely used in modern Tibet and is mainly an object of sport - the national game. Most modern bows are imported from China and Bhutan (N. W. Rockhill. Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet. Washington, 1895, p. 71). The famous equestrian archery competition, which takes place annually during the New Year festivities (Dzong gyap-sham-pe), is a foreign borrowing and dates back to the era of Gushi Khan (1640). Competitors represent the Mongol cavalry of Gushi Khan.

The appearance of modern firearms among the nomads of Northern Tibet will change, in all likelihood, the tactics of the nomad armies. The question of the use of a shell for a Tibetan warrior and his horse requires a detailed study, but there is no doubt that in this area Tibet was also influenced by its northeastern neighbors - Iranians, Huns, Mongols, who constantly pressed the border Tibetan tribes.

All the items discussed in this article irrefutably prove the existence of ancient Central Asian nomadic art in Tibet. The mountainous character of the country, with its inaccessible valleys, has helped to preserve much of the remote antiquity, and its nomadic population keeps their past as a treasure. Until now, attention has been focused only on the religious art of Tibet, its brightly colored banners and fine bronzes. Now a new field of Tibetan folk art has been discovered, namely the pre-Buddhist art of the Tibetan nomadic tribes, a trace of a distant past.

The Animal Style Among the Nomad Tribes of Northern Tibet Prague: Seminarium Kondakovianum, 1930

* This work was published in J.N. Roerich. The Animal Style Among the Nomad Tribes of Northern Tibet, Seminarium Kondakovianum, Prague, 1930, which contained two versions of the article: in English and Russian. The Russian version, prepared by G. Shklyaver, is well known to the Russian reader, but in a number of places it differs significantly from the English.

In this collection, the reader is offered a translation of the English version of the article of the 1930 edition, made by the editors of the Agni Publishing House. - Note. ed.