Phenomenology of the field. Phenomenology. Phenomenology in modern theory of consciousness

The science of the phenomena of consciousness, or phenomenology, is an independent philosophical discipline developed by Edmund Husserl, the original German philosopher, which laid the foundation for a fundamentally new approach to understanding consciousness and its role in human life. Phenomenology (Greek phainomenon - being and logos - teaching) is a science, or rather, according to Husserl himself, a scientific philosophy, the object of which is consciousness, which comprehends the existence of human consciousness itself.

The doctrine of phenomena is a new philosophical system that seeks to describe events and actions as they are. In traditional philosophy, a phenomenon is usually understood as a phenomenon comprehended in sensory experience. Husserl, on the other hand, understands by the phenomenon the meanings of things, objects, phenomena that arise in consciousness. In his phenomenon, subject and object merge together. The external world appears before the subject in a natural flow of phenomena, and self-consciousness appears as the being of awareness. In general, outside the phenomena of consciousness, according to Husserl, there is no subject of philosophy, since the given of the human world is the sum of phenomena, or phenomena, available exclusively as present in consciousness.

E. Husserl is convinced that consciousness is always active and purposeful in relation to the subject. It is intentional in essence (Latin intentio - intention, tendency, striving). Intentionality is interpreted by the philosopher not as a way of being an object, thing, phenomenon, but as execution, "assumption", or intentionalization. Operating with phenomena, a person intentions. In other words, he always deals not only with the external, but also with his inner world. Intention is a kind of attention that posits an object. Intentionality indissolubly links consciousness and the object of consciousness, that is, it unites the subject and the object, since consciousness is directed at a specific object with the aim of its semantic interpretation. This state, according to Husserl, is the innate ability of the subject to impart vital meaning to them through the constant focus of his consciousness on material and spiritual objects. “The term“ intentionality ”does not mean anything,” E. Husserl himself explains, “except for the general property of consciousness to be awareness of some thing.” This is the construction of an ideal order. Figuratively, we can say this: human consciousness is likened to the beam of an electric flashlight, which illuminates objects and things in the pitch darkness, making them recognizable. At the same time, the ray purposefully searches only for those things and objects that are subject to identification.

Intentionality simultaneously expresses the immanent world of human consciousness, which psychologically perceives common "ideal objects". It creates phenomena such as mental experiences, speculative attitudes that determine the meaning and purpose of objects. The task of phenomenology is to understand the true meaning of things, for which it is necessary to clear consciousness of empirical content. As for the existence of objects and things, it acquires itself only by being included in the consciousness of man. In contrast to the representatives of traditional epistemology with its subject-object dichotomy, E. Husserl believes that the awareness of the object and the object of consciousness itself are inseparable from each other. The primary reality in phenomenology is not “consciousness” itself, on the one hand, and not “matter”, on the other, but some kind of “life world”. It is he who reveals itself to man as a correlate of intentionally acting subjectivity, as a sphere of meanings and meanings constituted by transcendental subjectivity. Therefore, human consciousness appears in phenomenology as a kind of area of meanings and meanings, which opens up the possibility for diverse interpretations and interpretations.

The transcendental philosophy of I. Kant had a great influence on the formation of E. Husserl's phenomenology. From the latter, E. Husserl borrowed the concept of mental creativity for the purposeful "construction" of ideal objects of the world. He singled out several levels in human consciousness, depending on the target orientation of consciousness, on the degree of intentionality. So, consciousness can be directed exclusively outside, at objects and things of the objective world. In this case, living contemplation becomes its content. However, it also focuses on itself as an internal contemplation, which is called reflection. Husserl, following Kant, calls the individual as a representative of rational humanity a transcendental subject.

Thus, Husserl's phenomenology became the initial methodological basis for an irrational philosophical system as an “internal logic” of the formation of meaning in a certain spectrum of meanings of the existence of an object. In consciousness there is nothing and cannot be, except for the meanings of real or imaginary objects.

According to Husserl, the objective world is presented in the human mind only as a constituted formation. It is associated with a certain point from which the specified constitution originates. However, the philosopher does not specifically raise the question of the factual and historical givenness of this starting point: it recedes into the background, and in the foreground is the systemic analysis of material structures and the determination of the ways of their world formation. Therefore, understanding in the philosophical doctrine of Husserl appears as an original way of being of the person himself. By the way, it is not reduced to the art of interpretation and is not a kind of "method" of enlivening the world of things. This is not even taking into account human motives or volitional impulses and desires, but most likely - “taking measurements” from the thing itself as a fact of consciousness. For Husserl, the world does not exist outside and apart from or independently of consciousness, as in materialism, and not in consciousness, as in subjective idealism, but in a certain perspective of consciousness, that is, in intention. The world, according to Husserl, is outside consciousness, but it is permeated by it, it is always comprehended by it, and only in this form is it real.

The phenomenological method of cognition and explanation of the material and spiritual world is very popular today in world philosophy, as well as in natural science, and especially in medicine. It is he who warns any researcher against ignoring the uniqueness and originality of the inner (spiritual) world of people. Overcoming the crisis in modern science and medicine is possible only on the basis of the phenomenological "recipes" of E. Husserl. In his work "The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology", he rightly linked the tendency to "naturalize" a person in the natural sciences and in philosophy with socially dangerous manipulative attempts to treat people in much the same way as objects and things are treated.

The ideas of phenomenology were further developed in existentialism, personalism, philosophy of life, hermeneutics, etc. Husserl's teachings were often characterized as "existential phenomenology" because they examined in detail the "climate of modern human thinking." Man is a creature whose existence lies in understanding. And this is already the main thesis of philosophical hermeneutics.

One of the most influential trends in the philosophy of the 20th century was phenomenology, the founder and most prominent representative of which is the German philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859 — 1938).

Phenomenology represents not only the direction of philosophy, but also special research method that can be applied to a wide variety of areas. In particular, the followers of Husserl conducted research in the fields of psychology, psychiatry, ethics, mathematics, sociology, literary criticism, history and other disciplines. If before Husserl phenomenology was understood as a descriptive study, which must precede any explanation of the phenomenon of interest, then Husserl for the first time considers phenomenology as a new philosophy with its inherent new, phenomenological method, which is the foundation of science.

The main ideas of phenomenology are as follows:

the main goals of phenomenology- to build the science of science, science teaching and reveal the life world, the world of everyday life as the basis of all knowledge, including scientific;
to begin the study of the life world and science should be with research consciousness because reality is available to people only through him;
important not reality itself and the way she is perceived and comprehended human. Consciousness should be studied not as a means of exploring the world, but as the main subject of philosophy;
you need to find out, firstly, what is consciousness, and secondly, how it differs from what is not consciousness;
for this it is necessary to single out pure, pre-object, pre-symbolic consciousness, or “ subjective flow", And define its features;
the main characteristic of pure consciousness is intentionality, i.e. his constant focus on subjects... Consciousness is always intentional, that is, directed towards something;
a life-world serving as a naive everyday life, filled with "meanings" of consciousness through which we perceive objects of being;
erroneous is the idea that we are exploring primary being outside of consciousness; in fact, we investigate the secondary formations of the "life world" and from them we draw the concepts of science.
the task of phenomenology is to show how the secondary formations of this world were born;
in order to understand the genesis of concepts and to reveal the nature of true, "pure consciousness", it is necessary to carry out a reduction of consciousness, that is, to move from considering concrete objects to analyzing their pure essence. For this, the attention of the scientist should be directed not to the object, but to how the indicated objects are given to our consciousness. The object, as it were, remains on the sidelines, and the state of consciousness comes to the fore;
consciousness in its pure form - "absolute I" (which is at the same time the center of the stream of human consciousness) - as it were constructs the world, introducing "meanings" into it;
all kinds of reality with which a person deals are explained from acts of consciousness; there is simply no objective reality existing outside and independently of consciousness; but consciousness self-explanatory, reveals itself as a phenomenon.

Husserl and other founders of phenomenology understood that this is a new science of consciousness, a new beginning in philosophy, which reflects a certain frontier: the transition from constructivism and irrationalism to the possibility of a reflexive study of the infinitely diverse types of human experience. The methods of phenomenology had a great influence on the development of philosophy in the 20th century, in particular, on the development of existentialism, hermeneutics and analytical philosophy.

E. Husserl's phenomenological philosophy

The emergence of phenomenology as a philosophical movement associated with creativity Edmund Husserl(1859 - 1938). After defending his thesis in mathematics, he began his scientific career as an assistant to an outstanding mathematician of the late 19th century. K. T. V. Weierstrass. However, gradually there is a change in his scientific interests in favor.

Philosophical views of E. Husserl formed under the influence of the greatest philosophers of the XIX century. The ideas of Bernard Bolzano (1781 - 1848) and Franz Brentano (1838 - 1917) played a special role in the formation of his views. The first criticized psychologism and believed that truths can exist regardless of whether they are expressed or not. This view, being perceived by Husserl, contributed to his striving to cleanse the cognitive process from the layers of psychologism.

From Brentano, Husserl took on the idea of intentionality. According to Brentano, intentionality "is what makes it possible to typify psychological phenomena." Intentionality in phenomenology is understood as the orientation of consciousness towards an object, a property to experience.

E. Husserl outlined his ideas in the following works: "Logical Investigations" (1901), "Philosophy as a Rigorous Science" (1911), "Ideas of Pure Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy" (1913), "Transcendental Logic and Formal Logic" (1921) , "Cartesian Reflections" (1931). In 1954, the handwritten work "The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology", written two years before his death, and other works were published.

A significant part of the thinker's works has been translated into Russian.

Feature of the philosophy of E. Husserl consisted in the development of a new method. The essence of this method is reflected in the slogan "Back to things!" It is possible to understand what things are, according to Husserl, only through the description of "phenomena", that is, phenomena "that appear to consciousness after the realization of the" epoch ", that is, after the brackets of our philosophical views and beliefs connected with our natural attitude, which imposes on us the belief in the existence of the world of things. "

The phenomenological method, according to E. Husserl, helps to comprehend the essence of things, not facts. Thus, “the phenomenologist is not interested in this or that moral norm, he is interested in why it is the norm. It is undoubtedly important to study the rituals and hymns of a particular religion, but it is more important to understand what religiosity is in general, which makes different rituals and dissimilar chants religious. " Phenomenological analysis delves into the state of, say, shame, holiness, justice from the point of view of their essence.

« The subject of phenomenology- the kingdom of pure truths, a priori meanings - both actual and possible, both realized in language and imaginable. Phenomenology is defined by Husserl as "the first philosophy", as the science of the pure principles of consciousness and knowledge, as a universal teaching on the method that reveals the a priori conditions for the thinkability of objects and the pure structures of consciousness, regardless of the spheres of their application. Cognition is viewed as a stream of consciousness, internally organized and integral, but relatively independent from specific mental acts, from the subject of cognition and his activities.

The phenomenological attitude is realized using the method of reduction (also epoch). On this path, the understanding of the subject of cognition is achieved not as an empirical subject, but as a transcendental subject, ”that is, overstepping, going beyond the bounds of the finite empirical world, capable of having pre-experienced knowledge. The ability to directly perceive the objectively ideal basis of linguistic expressions is called Husserl ideation. The admission of the possibility of studying this ability within the framework of phenomenology turns it into a science of the way of comprehending the world through the analysis of "pure consciousness". Since consciousness, subjectivity cannot be bracketed, it acts as the basis of all reality. The world, according to Husserl, is constructed by consciousness.

Judging by the statements of E. Husserl, the phenomenological method was designed to turn philosophy into a rigorous science, that is, a theory of scientific knowledge capable of giving a correct idea of the "life world" and its construction.

According to E. Husserl, the new philosophy with its special method promising the achievement of deeper knowledge is necessary because the old philosophy did not provide that level of depth of knowledge, based on which humanity could develop safely. It is precisely in the shortcomings of the previous philosophy, according to Husserl, that the causes of the crisis of European sciences and the crisis of European civilization must be sought. We find such thoughts in the previously mentioned works of E. Husserl: "The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology" (1934 - 1937), "Cartesian Reflections" (1931), "The Crisis of European Humanity and Philosophy" (1935).

According to Husserl, the crisis of science and philosophy is due to the fact that the previously existing criteria of scientific character, which satisfied all scientists, ceased to operate. The former normative foundations of the world outlook and world order have become unstable.

"Since the belief in absolute reason, which gives meaning to the world, collapsed, so too did the belief in the meaning of history, in the meaning of humanity, its freedom, understood as a person's ability to acquire a reasonable meaning of all individual and social existence."

The world, as it were, is fighting against the philosophy and science that strives to bring it into order with the help of normative attitudes. But in order to ensure the lives of people, it needs to be organized with the help of norms. This need is constant, it exhausts the knowing mind. Philosophy and science at some points in history "get tired" and begin to lag behind in their reactions to the demands of the world. Philosophy and science seem to fall into a state of confusion. Disagreement begins in them.

During this period, which is typical for Europe in the 20th century, “instead of a single living philosophy, Husserl notes, we have an overflowing, but almost incoherent stream of philosophical literature: instead of a serious polemic of opposing theories, which in a dispute reveal their inner unity, our agreement in basic convictions and unshakable faith in true philosophy, we have only the appearance of scientific speeches and the appearance of criticism, only the appearance of serious philosophical communication with each other and for each other. This is the least evidence of joint scientific pursuits filled with a sense of responsibility in the spirit of serious cooperation and focus on objectively significant results. Objectively significant - that is, precisely the results cleared in comprehensive criticism and resisted any criticism. And how truly scientific pursuits and real cooperation would be possible where there are so many philosophers and almost as many different philosophies.

To overcome this, Husserl considers it necessary "to bring the latent (hidden - S. N.) mind to self-knowledge of its capabilities and thereby clarify the possibility of metaphysics as a true possibility - this is the only way to actually implement metaphysics or universal philosophy."

Bringing the mind to the knowledge of its capabilities and disclosing the possibilities of wisdom is carried out for Husserl with the help of philosophy.

In his opinion, philosophy "in the original sense means nothing more than a universal science, the science of the world as a whole, of the all-encompassing unity of all that exists." Then he continues: “Philosophy, science is the name of a special class of cultural formations. The historical movement, which has taken the stylistic form of European superscience, is oriented towards a normative image lying in infinity, not such, however, that could be deduced by pure external morphological observation of structural changes. A constant focus on the norm is intrinsic to the international life of an individual, and hence to nations with their special communities and, finally, to the whole organism of the united European nations. "

According to Husserl, the desire for the ideal rationing of life and activity, which arose in ancient Greece, opened the way for mankind to infinity. This striving for the ideal shaping and organization of life is based on a particular attitude. Mytho-religious, practical and theoretical attitudes are known. Western science is based, according to Husserl, on a theoretical attitude. The theoretical attitude of the Western philosopher presupposes inclusion in intellectual activity aimed at finding norms that facilitate knowledge and practice. Husserl believed that thanks to philosophy, the ideas of which are transmitted in the course of education, an ideally oriented sociality is formed. The thinker writes: "In this ideally oriented sociality, philosophy itself continues to perform a leading function and to solve its own infinite task - the function of free and universal theoretical reflection, embracing all ideals and a universal ideal, that is, the universe of all norms."

Verification of ideas about the content of norms from the point of view of their correctness is based on the criteria of rationality. These criteria differ for different groups, classes, nations. Moreover, “it is precisely the absence, as Husserl believes, that on all sides of true rationality is the source of the unbearable misunderstanding by people of their social existence and their own endless tasks”. Achieving such true rationality is the task of philosophy, according to Husserl.

Husserl believed that explaining the crisis of science by the seeming collapse of rationality is unjustified.... He emphasized: "The reason for the difficulties of rational culture lies ... not in the essence of rationalism itself, but only in its externalization, in its distortion by" naturalism "and" objectivism. " Phenomenological philosophy leads to the correct understanding of rationality, which is based on the analysis and clarification of the phenomena of consciousness and draws from them genuine knowledge, which is designed to develop into philosophy as a rigorous science that unites all of humanity.

Subjective-idealistic assumptions in Husserl's philosophy in understanding the phenomena of consciousness turn it into a far from modern science myth. However, many ideas and guesses contained in Husserl's works about the nature and meaning of normativity, about the connection between the intellectual development of mankind and its culture with the development of mathematics, and others, seem useful for further development philosophy.

Subsequently, the ideas of phenomenological philosophy were developed by Max Scheler, M. Heidegger, M. Merleau-Ponty in Russia and G.G. Shpet and others.

Vadim Rudnev

Phenomenology - (from ancient Greek phainomenon - being) - one of the directions of philosophy of the twentieth century, associated primarily with the names of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger.

The specificity of phenomenology as a philosophical doctrine consists in the rejection of any idealizations as a starting point and acceptance of the only prerequisite - the possibility of describing the spontaneously meaningful life of consciousness.

The main idea of phenomenology is the indissolubility and at the same time, mutual irreducibility, irreducibility of consciousness, human existence, personality and the objective world.

The main methodological device of phenomenology is phenomenological reduction - reflexive work with consciousness, aimed at revealing pure consciousness, or the essence of consciousness.

From the point of view of Husserl, any object should be grasped only as a correlate of consciousness (a property of intention), that is, perception, memory, fantasy, judgment, doubt, assumptions, etc. functions of the object, but on the process of perception itself as the process of forming a certain range of values seen in the object.

“The goal of phenomenological reduction,” writes the researcher of phenomenology V. I. Molchanov, “is to discover in each individual consciousness pure consistency as pure impartiality, which calls into question any already given system of mediation between oneself and the world. Impartiality should be maintained in the phenomenological attitude not in relation to objects and processes of the real world, the existence of which is not questioned - "everything remains as it was" (Husserl) - but in relation to the already acquired attitudes of consciousness. Pure consciousness is not consciousness, cleared of objects, on the contrary, consciousness here for the first time reveals its essence as a semantic merging with an object.Pure consciousness is a self-purification of consciousness from imposed schemes, dogmas, stereotyped ways of thinking, from attempts to find the basis of consciousness in what is not consciousness. Phenomenological method - this is the identification and description of the field of direct semantic conjugation of consciousness and an object, the horizons of which do not contain hidden entities that are not manifested as meanings ".

From the point of view of phenomenology (cf. individual language in the philosophy of L. Wittgenstein), the experience of meaning is possible outside of communication - in an individual, "lonely" mental life, and therefore, linguistic expression is not identical with meaning, the sign is only one of the possibilities - along with contemplation - exercise value.

Phenomenology has developed its own original concept of time. Time is viewed here not as objective, but as temporality, temporality of consciousness itself. Husserl proposed the following structure of temporal perception: 1) now-point (initial impression); 2) retention, that is, the primary retention of this now-point; 3) protention, that is, the primary expectation or anticipation, constituting "what comes."

Time in phenomenology is the basis for the coincidence of a phenomenon and its description, a mediator between the spontaneity of consciousness and reflection.

Phenomenology has also developed its own concept of truth.

V. I. Molchanov writes in this regard: "Husserl calls truth, firstly, as the very determination of being, that is, the unity of meanings that exists regardless of whether anyone sees it or not, and being itself is" an object making the truth. "Truth is the identity of the object to itself," being in the sense of truth ": a true friend, the true state of affairs, etc. Secondly, truth is the structure of the act of consciousness, which creates the possibility of discerning the state of affairs in this way as it is, that is, the possibility of identity (adequate) of the thought and the contemplated; evidence as a criterion of truth is not a special feeling that accompanies some judgments, but the experience of this coincidence. truth is not the equality of knowledge and the object [...] Truth as true being is rooted in the way of human being, which is characterized as openness [...] Human being can be in truth and not in truth - truth as openness must be torn out, stolen from existence [...]. Truth is essentially identical with being; the history of being - the history of its oblivion; the history of truth is the history of its epistemologization ".

In recent decades, phenomenology has shown a tendency towards rapprochement with other philosophical directions, in particular with analytical philosophy. The closeness between them is found when it comes to meaning, sense, interpretation.

Bibliography

Molchanov V.I. Phenomenapology // Modern Western Philosophy: Dictionary, - M., 1991.

PHENOMENOLOGY

PHENOMENOLOGY is an influential trend in Western philosophy of the 20th century. Although the term F. itself was used by Kant and Hegel, it became widespread thanks to Husserl, who created a large-scale project of phenomenological philosophy. This project played an important role for both German and French philosophy of the first half - mid-20th century. Such philosophical works as "Formalism in Ethics and the Material Ethics of Value" by Scheler (1913/1916), "Being and Time" by Heidegger (1927), "Being and Nothing" by Sartre (1943), "Phenomenology of Perception" by Merleau-Ponty (1945) are programmatic phenomenological research. Phenomenological motives are also effective within the framework of non-phenomenologically oriented philosophy, as well as in a number of sciences, for example, literary criticism, social sciences, and above all psychology and psychiatry. This is evidenced by the phenomenological studies of both contemporaries and disciples of Husserl, and now living philosophers. The most interesting phenomenologists or phenomenologically oriented philosophers include: Heidegger, a student of Husserl, who used the phenomenological method as "a way of approaching that and a way of showing the definition of what is meant to become the topic of ontology", i.e. human Dasein, for the description and understanding of which phenomenology must turn to hermeneutics for help ("Being and Time"); The "Göttingen School of Phenomenology", originally focused on phenomenological ontology (A. Reinach, Scheler), whose representatives, together with the "Munich School" (M. Geiger, A. Pfender) and under the leadership of Husserl, founded in 1913 the "Yearbook on Phenomenology and Phenomenological Research ", opened with Husserl's programmatic work" Ideas for Pure Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy ", in which the already named works of Scheler and Heidegger were published; E. Stein, L. Landgrebe and E. Fink - Husserl's assistants; as well as the Polish phenomenologist of aesthetics R. Ingarden, the Czech phenomenologist, fighter for human rights J. Patočku, the American sociologically oriented phenomenologists Hurwicz and Schütz; Russian philosophers Shpet and Losev. The situation in Germany on the eve of and during the Second World War excluded Husserl - a Jew by nationality - from philosophical discussions until the mid-1950s. Its first readers were the Franciscan monk and philosopher Van Brede - the founder of the first Husserl Archive in Leuven (1939), as well as Merleau-Ponty, Sartre, Rieker, Levinas, Derrida. The listed philosophers were strongly influenced by F. , and individual periods of their creativity can be called phenomenological. Interest in F. today encompasses not only western and eastern Europe, but also, for example, Latin America and Japan. The first world congress on physics was held in Spain in 1988. Waldenfels and K. Held are among the most interesting modern phenomenologists in Germany. F. in the understanding of Husserl is a description of the semantic structures of consciousness and objectivity, which is carried out in the process of "putting out of brackets" both the fact of the existence or being of an object, and the psychological activity of consciousness directed at it. As a result of such "brackeing" or the implementation of the phenomenological epoch, the subject of the phenomenologist's research becomes consciousness, considered from the point of view of its intentional nature. The intentionality of consciousness is manifested in the direction of the acts of consciousness on the subject. The concept of intentionality, borrowed by Husserl in the philosophy of his teacher Brentano and reinterpreted in the course of “Logical Investigations. Part 2 "is one of the key concepts of F.

Phenomenology (philosophy)

Husserl. In the study of intentional consciousness, the emphasis has been shifted from what, or the object's being “out of the brackets,” to its as, or the variety of ways the object is given. From the point of view of it, the object is not given, but is manifested or manifests itself (erscheint) in consciousness. This kind of phenomenon is what Husserl calls the phenomenon ( Greek phainomenon - revealing itself). F. then - is the science of the phenomena of consciousness. Its slogan becomes the slogan "Back to the things themselves!" An intentional act directed towards an object must be filled (erfuehllt) with the being of that object. G. calls the filling of the intention with the existential content truth, and its experience in judgment - the evidence. The concept of intentionality and intentional consciousness is associated in F. Husserl initially with the task of substantiating knowledge achievable within the framework of some new science or science. Gradually the place of this science is taken by FT arr. The first model of physics can be presented as a model of science that seeks to question the habitual belief in the existence of objects and the world, designated by Husserl as a "natural attitude", and in the course of describing the diversity of their givenness - within the framework of the "phenomenological attitude" ) to this being. The being of an object is understood as identical in the variety of ways it is given. The concept of intentionality is then a condition for the possibility of a phenomenological attitude. The ways to achieve it are, along with the phenomenological epoch, eidetic, transcendental and phenomenological reductions. The first leads to the study of the essence of objects; the second, close to the phenomenological era, opens up for the researcher the area of pure or transcendental consciousness, i.e. consciousness of the phenomenological attitude; the third transforms this consciousness into a transcendental subjectivity and leads to the theory of transcendental constitution. The concept of intentionality has played a major role in the studies of Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, Sartre and Levinas. Thus, in Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception, this concept acts as a prerequisite for overcoming the gap between reason and corporeality, traditional for classical philosophy and psychology, and allows us to speak of “incarnate mind” as the initial moment of experience, perception and knowledge. Husserl's work in the field of describing intentional consciousness leads him to such new concepts or models of this consciousness as inner time-consciousness and consciousness-horizon. Internal time-consciousness is a prerequisite for understanding consciousness as a stream of experiences. The starting point in this stream is the “now” point of the present tense, around which - in the horizon of consciousness - the just-that-former and possible future are collected. Consciousness at the "now" point is constantly correlated with its time horizon. This correlation allows us to perceive, remember and imagine something only possible. The problem of inner time-consciousness has evoked a response in the research of almost all phenomenologists. Thus, in Being and Time, Heidegger transforms Husserl's temporality of consciousness into the temporality of human existence, the starting point in which is now not the point “now”, but “running ahead”, the future, which is “projected” by Dasein from its possibility to be. In Levinas's philosophy, temporality is understood "not as a fact of an isolated and lonely subject, but as the relationship of the subject to the Other." The origins of such an understanding of temporality can be easily found in the model of consciousness-time and the time horizon, within the framework of which Husserl tries to build my relationship to the Other by analogy with the relationship of the actual experience to the time horizon surrounding him. Within the framework of consciousness or within the framework of its noematic-noetic ( cm. NOEZIS and NOEM) of unity as a unity of experiences from the point of view of their content and fulfillment, the constitution of objectivity takes place, a process as a result of which the object acquires its existential significance. The concept of constitution is another most important concept of F. The source of the constitution of the centers of accomplishment of acts of consciousness is the I. Being I is the only being, the existence and significance of which I cannot doubt. This being is of a completely different kind than objective being. This motive is an obvious reference to Descartes, whom Husserl considers to be his immediate predecessor.

Another way of addressing the I is to understand it as a transcendental subjectivity, which connects F. Husserl with the philosophy of Kant. The introduction of the concept of "transcendental subjectivity" once again showed the specificity of F. as being addressed not to objects and their being, but to the constitution of this being in consciousness. Husserl's appeal to the problem of being was taken up by subsequent phenomenologists. The first project of Heidegger's ontology is the project of F., which makes the modes and modes of human existence self-appearing (phenomenal). Sartre in Being and Nothing, actively using such Husserl's concepts as phenomenon, intentionality, temporality, connects them with Hegel's categories and Heidegger's fundamental ontology. He rigidly opposes being-for-itself as consciousness (nothing) and being-in-itself as a phenomenon (being), which form a dualistic ontological reality. Sartre's phenomenological method is designed to emphasize, in contrast to Hegel's method, the mutual irreducibility of being and nothing, reality and consciousness. Like Husserl and Heidegger, he refers to a phenomenological description of the interaction of reality and consciousness. The problem of the I as the nucleus or center of the accomplishments of consciousness leads Husserl to the need to describe this Ya. F. acquires the features of a reflexive philosophy. Husserl speaks of a special kind of self-perception - inner perception. It, just like the perception of external objects, objectifies what it deals with. However, objectification is never done absolutely and once and for all, since it takes place in the consciousness-horizon and opens up all new ways of giving objects in it. What remains in the I after it is objectified by consciousness, Husserl calls the "pure I". The unobjective “pure I” became in F. Husserl's followers a prerequisite for the possible and unfinished existence of myself. Consciousness-horizon is the consciousness of my realization, a connection of references going into infinity. This is the infinity of possibilities for positing objects, which I still dispose of not completely arbitrarily. The last and necessary condition such a reference to objects in cognition is the world. The concept of the world, initially in the form of a "natural concept of the world", and then, as a "life world" 'is a separate and large topic of F. Heidegger (being-in-the-world and the concept of peace of mind), Merleau-Ponty (being -to-world), Gurvich with his project of the world of doxa and episteme, Schütz with his project of a phenomenological-sociological study of the construction and structure of the social world. The concept of "life world" has come into use today not only in phenomenologically oriented philosophy, but also in the philosophy of communicative action, analytical philosophy of language, hermeneutics. In F. Husserl, this concept is closely related to such concepts as intersubjectivity, corporeality, the experience of the Alien and the teleology of mind. Initially, the world appears as the most general correlate of consciousness or its most extensive objectivity. On the one hand, this is the world of science and culture, on the other, it is the foundation of any scientific concept of the world. The world is between the subjects of this world, acting as the environment of their life experience and giving this life experience certain forms. Intersubjectivity is a condition for the possibility of the world, as well as a condition for the objectivity of any knowledge, which in the "life-world" from mine, subjective, turns into what belongs to all - objective. F. turns into a study and description of the transformation of opinions into knowledge, subjective into objective, mine into universally significant. Reflections of the late Husserl about the "life-world" tie together all of his projects F. Within the framework of the "life-world" and its genesis, the body of the mind itself unfolds, originally in the form of scientific teaching. F., describing the dual nature of the "life world" as the foundation of all knowledge and the horizon of all its possible modifications, puts at its foundation the duality of consciousness itself, which always emanates from something alien to him and necessarily posits it. In the mouths of such a modern phenomenologist as Waldenfels, the duality of consciousness is a statement of the differences between me and the Other and a prerequisite for the existence of a multidimensional and heterogeneous world, in which building a relationship to the alien of my self is a prerequisite of ethics. F. in the form of F. ethics is a description of the diverse forms of the relationship between me and the Other, belonging and alien to my self. Such a philosophy is both aesthetics and philosophy of everyday and political life, in which these forms are embodied.

Source: The Latest Philosophical Dictionary at Gufo.me

E.G. - German philosopher, founder of phenomenology, student of Brento.

PHENOMENOLOGY

developed the basic provisions of phenomenology, the only discipline capable, in his opinion, of making philosophy a rigorous and exact science. Phenomenology is the science of phenomena. A phenomenon is that which manifests itself as it manifests itself. The human "I" and all things surrounding it are phenomena. The basis of knowledge - the principle of phenomenological reduction - is to abstain (epoch) from belief in the reality of the surrounding world. Thus, we get the eidos of the world, its ideal value. From the point of view, the reduction is eidetic. Since the phenomenon manifests itself in consciousness and only through an act of consciousness, i.e. subjective consciousness determines the state of things in reality, reduction is also transcendental.

In a double - eidetic and transcendental - dimension, a phenomenon, just like its manifestation to consciousness, is something absolute.

This is the essence of a thing, its being. The consciousness that carries out the reduction is self-sufficient.

Thus, according to Husserl, the only absolute being is revealed to us. Consciousness has an intention, focus on an object. The intention to an object, directly and in the original given to consciousness, G. calls intuition. Intuition in phenomenology has the following meaning: to see everything that appears as truly manifested and only as manifested. To complete his theory, G. introduces the concept of "constitution". Consciousness is a constituent stream. The form of constitution is phenomenological temporality - the unity of the past, future and present in one intentional act of consciousness. By constituting in the form of temporality of consciousness "I" possesses the surrounding world and itself. According to Husserl, philosophy is the highest attempt of Reason to constitute with genuine evidence the “I” and what the world of this “I” is.

Edmund Gusserl(it. Edmund husserl; April 8, 1859, Prosnitz, Moravia (Austria) - April 26, 1938, Freiburg) - German philosopher, founder of phenomenology. Descended from a Jewish family. In 1876 he entered the University of Leipzig, where he began to study astronomy, mathematics, physics and philosophy, in 1878 he moved to the University of Berlin, where he continued to study mathematics with L. Kronecker and K. Weierstrass, and philosophy with F. Paulsen. In 1881 he studied mathematics in Vienna. On October 8, 1882, he defended his thesis "Towards the theory of the calculus of variations" at the University of Vienna from Leo Königsberger and began to study philosophy under Franz Brentano. In 1886, Husserl, along with his bride, accepted the Protestant religion, in 1887 they got married, after which Husserl got a job teaching at the University of Halle.

His first publications were devoted to the problems of founding mathematics (Philosophy of Arithmetic, 1891) and logic (Logical Investigations I, 1900; II, 1901). "Logical Investigations" become the first book of a new direction of philosophy discovered by Husserl - phenomenology. Since 1901, he meets a friendly atmosphere in Göttingen and Munich and his first like-minded people (Reinach, Scheler, Pfänder). It was during this period that he published a programmatic article in Logos - Philosophy as a Rigorous Science (1911) and the first volume of Ideas to Pure Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy (1913). In 1916, he receives a chair at the University of Freiburg, which Rickert held before him. Martin Heidegger, Husserl's most capable student, edits his Lectures on the Phenomenology of the Inner Consciousness of Time (1928). Then, "Formal and Transcendental Logic" (1929), "Cartesian Reflections" (in French, 1931), parts I and II of the work "The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology" (1936, the full text of the manuscript was published posthumously, in 1954). After the Nazis came to power, Husserl was fired for some time as a Jew, according to the Land Law of Baden; he was finally dismissed from office only after the adoption of the "Nuremberg Laws", depriving Jews of citizenship. Heidegger was elected rector of the university in the spring of 1933 and soon joined the NSDAP; the question of his personal involvement in the persecution of Husserl and their relationship during this period causes a lot of controversy. Husserl was prohibited from participating in the philosophical congresses of 1933 and 1937, both officially and privately; his old books were not withdrawn from the libraries, but the publication of new ones was impossible. Despite the hostility that surrounded him by the Nazi regime, Husserl did not emigrate (his children left for the United States). He died in Freiburg in 1938 from pleurisy, almost all alone. Belgian Franciscan monk, graduate student Higher Institute Philosophy Hermann Leo Van Breda, fearing Hitler's anti-Semitism, moved the library and unpublished works of Husserl to Louvain, and also helped the widow and students of the philosopher to leave Germany. If not for the intervention of Van Breda, Husserl's widow would have been threatened with deportation to a concentration camp, and his archive would have been confiscated and killed. This is how the Husserl Archive was founded in Louvain - a center for the study of Husserl's heritage, which still exists today. The disassembled archive of Edmund Husserl in Louvain contains forty thousand unpublished sheets (partly transcripts), which are published in the complete collected works - Husserlian.

The philosophical evolution of Husserl, despite his passionate devotion to one idea (or perhaps precisely because of this), underwent a number of metamorphoses. However, the commitment to the following remained unchanged:

The ideal of rigorous science.
Liberation of philosophy from random premises.
The radical autonomy and responsibility of the philosopher.
The "miracle" of subjectivity.

Husserl appeals to philosophy, which, in his opinion, is capable of restoring the lost connection with the deepest human concerns. He is not satisfied with the rigor of logical and deductive sciences and sees the main reason for the crisis in science, as well as European humanity, in the inability and unwillingness of contemporary science to address the problems of value and meaning. The radical severity that is implied in this is an attempt to reach the "roots" or "beginnings" of all knowledge, avoiding everything that is dubious and taken for granted. Those who decided to do this had to have a deep understanding of their responsibility. This responsibility cannot be delegated to anyone else. Thus, she demanded full scientific and moral autonomy of the researcher.

As Husserl wrote, "a true philosopher cannot but be free: the essential nature of philosophy consists in its extremely radical autonomy." Hence the attention to subjectivity, to the irreducible and fundamental world of consciousness that understands its own being and the being of others. Life and scientific activity Husserl fully met the most stringent requirements of personal autonomy, criticism of thought and responsibility to the era. These strong qualities impressed many students, in whose fruitful cooperation the phenomenological movement was formed. All the disciples maintained an unchanging respect for those to whom they owed the beginning of their thinking, although none of them followed Husserl for a long time.

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Phenomenology

consciousness of something

Consciousness, in other words, is indifferent to whether objects really exist or whether they are an illusion or a mirage, because in the reality of consciousness, experiences are intertwined just like jets of water twist and intertwine in a common stream. In consciousness there is nothing but the meanings of real, illusory or imaginary objects.

Phenomenology

Husserl begins with the idea of creating a science of science - philosophical science. Philosophy, he writes, "is called upon to be a rigorous science and, moreover, one that would satisfy the highest theoretical needs, and in an ethical and religious respect would make possible a life governed by pure norms of reason." The philosopher wants to clearly answer the question of what are essentially "things", "events", "laws of nature", and therefore asks about the essence of theory and the very possibility of its existence.

Phenomenology at the beginning of its formation aspired precisely to build philosophy as a rigorous science. This is exactly what - "Philosophy as a strict science" - is called one of the main works of Husserl of the early period.

The discovery of this obvious truth presupposes a special method of moving towards it. Husserl starts from the position he calls natural attitude Natural world

phenomenological reduction

The first stage of phenomenological reduction is eidential reduction, in which the phenomenologist "brackets" the entire real world, refrains from any evaluations and judgments. Husserl calls this operation « era» « era»

(noema) and the aspect of consciousness (noesis)

Consciousness in this case, as it were, opens up to meet the objective world, seeing in it not random features and characteristics, but objective universality.

At the same time, the phenomenon is not an element of the real world - it is created and controlled by the phenomenologist for the most complete penetration into the stream of perceiving consciousness and the discovery of its essence.

intersubjectivity

"Life world"

Further development of the phenomenological tradition in the works of M. Heidegger (1889-1976), G. Shpet (1879-1940), R. Ingarden (1893-1970), M. Scheler (1874-1928), M. Merleau-Ponty (1908- 1961), J.-P. Sartre (1905-1980) is connected, on the one hand, with the assimilation of her method, and on the other hand, with criticism of the main Husserl's provisions. M. Heidegger, developing and transforming the idea of intentionality, defined human being itself as the inseparability of the world and man, therefore the problem of consciousness, to which Husserl paid so much attention, recedes into the background. In this case, it will not be about the diversity of phenomena, but about the only fundamental phenomenon - human existence. Truth appears as the correctness of representation revealed to man.

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Phenomenological philosophy of science.

In a broad sense, phenomenology is a branch of philosophy that studies phenomena (gr. - "the doctrine of phenomena"). This concept was used by many philosophers - Goethe, Kant, Hegel, Breptapo. In a narrower sense, this is the name of the philosophical doctrine of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), which was created at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. and is actively developed by his followers (M. Heidegger, O. Becker, E. Fipk - Germany, M. Merleau-Popty, E. Levipas, M. Dufrepp - France, A. Schutz, M. Natanson, A. Gurvich - America and etc.).

one of the leading themes of the phenomenological philosophy of E. Husserl and his followers. The task of an irrefutable, unconditionally reliable substantiation of the possibility of scientific knowledge is an essential stage in Husserl's program of transforming philosophy into a rigorous science. It should be noted that science is understood here not on the model of really existing sciences, but rather as a truly rational type of research in its limiting possibilities. Characteristic feature Ph.D. there is a desire to radically clarify the foundations of scientific knowledge and the very possibility of cognition on the basis of the phenomenological method of revealing the self-givenness of "things themselves" in phenomenological experience. Phenomenology considers the "objective" cognition of positive sciences to be naive, since the very possibility of such cognition remains unclear, the connection between the mental process of cognition and the object of cognition transcendent to it remains a mystery.

The actual manifestation of consciousness, mediating any objective scientific experience, always turns out to be "viewed" by positive science. This means that all positive scientific knowledge and its methodology are relative. Guided by the principle of premiselessness, phenomenology turns directly to the origins of experience and sees the essence of the cognitive connection in the intentionality (orientation of consciousness towards the object) of consciousness. Penetrating into the essence of knowledge, phenomenology declares itself as a universally substantiating science, as a science of science. Husserl puts forward the idea of a unified system of scientific and philosophical knowledge, a fundamental role in which phenomenology is called upon to play, or "the first philosophy", acting as a universal methodology. All other scientific disciplines are subdivided into eidetic ("second philosophy") and positive in accordance with the fundamental difference between the two sides of the research object: essential (necessary) and factual (accidental). In the general system of scientific knowledge, eidetic sciences, as an example of which we can cite mathematics and "pure" natural science, turn out to be a link between transcendental (going beyond reason) phenomenology and positive sciences, they are assigned the role of a theoretical foundation for rationalization and transcendental comprehension of the factual material of positive sciences. The method of the eidetic sciences is ideation within the limits of eidetic reduced experience. Clarifying the essential structures of various kinds of biology, eidetic sciences form ontologies: a formal ontology containing a priori forms of objectivity in general and prescribing a formal structure for private sciences, as well as regional, or material, ontologies that unfold the concepts of formal ontology on the material of two main regions of existence: nature and spirit. Ontology (science, studying the problem of being) of nature, in turn, is divided into the ontology of physical nature and the ontology of organic nature. Each regional ontology is considered as an autonomous sphere of a certain objectivity with peculiar essential structures comprehended in ideation (contemplation of the essence). Eidetic sciences make it possible to clarify the fundamental concepts of regions, such as "space", "time", "causality", "culture", "history", etc., as well as to establish the essential laws of these regions. At the level of research, the factual material of each regional ontology corresponds to a group of positive sciences, in which the semantic

34. Social epistemology.

Epistemology (from ancient Greek ἐπιστήμη - "scientific knowledge, science", "reliable knowledge" and λόγος - "word", "speech"); epistemology (from ancient Greek. γνῶσις - "knowledge", "knowledge" and λόγος - "word", "speech") - the theory of knowledge, a section of philosophy. SOCIAL EPISTEMOLOGY (English social epistemology, German soziale Erkenntnistheorie) is one of the modern areas of research at the intersection of philosophy, history and sociology of science, science of science. Over the past 30 years, it has been actively developing, producing new approaches and generating discussions. Proponents of classical epistemology believed that there are three sources of knowledge. This is, firstly, an object in the focus of cognitive interest; secondly, the subject himself with his inherent cognitive abilities; third, the social conditions of cognition. At the same time, the positive content of knowledge was seen mainly in the object; the subject is a source of hindrances and illusions, but at the same time provides a creative-constructive nature of cognition; social conditions are entirely responsible for prejudices and delusions. A number of modern epistemologists have taken a significantly different position. They argue that all three sources of knowledge are in fact reducible to one thing - to the social conditions of knowledge. Both subject and object are social constructs; only what constitutes a part of the human world is cognized, and in the way dictated by social norms and rules. Thus, both the content and the form of knowledge are social from beginning to end - this is the point of view of some (but not all) of the supporters of S. e. State of the issue. Within the framework of S. e. Three main directions can be distinguished, respectively, associated with the names of their representatives: D. Bloor (Edinburgh), S. Fuller (Warwick) and E. Goldman (Arizona). Each of them is positioned in its own way in relation to classical epistemology and philosophy in general. So, Bloor in the spirit of the "naturalistic trend" gives the status of a "true theory of knowledge" to cognitive sociology designed to replace the philosophical analysis of knowledge. G oldman recognizes the importance of many scientific disciplines for the theory of knowledge, but emphasizes that it should be more than just their empirical union. Epistemology must maintain its distinction from the "positive sciences"; not only the description of the cognitive process, but also its normative assessment in relation to the truth and validity constitutes the essence of its "social epistemic" as a variant of the analytical theory of cognition. Fulle p occupies an intermediate position and follows the path of synthesizing the philosophy of K. Popper, J. Habermas, and M. Foucault. not just as one of the versions of the modern theory of knowledge, but as its global and integrative perspective, closely related to what is called "science and technology studies". A detailed (although not devoid of tendentiousness, does not mention the work of D. Bloor with the subtitle "Social Theory of Knowledge") analysis of SE is given by E. Goldman in an article of the same name in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. He defines it as a study of the social dimensions of knowledge or information, but reveals significantly different opinions about what the term “knowledge” encompasses, what the sphere of “social” is, and what kind of socio-epistemological research and its purpose should be. According to some authors, SE should retain the basic tenet of classical epistemology, considering, however, that the latter was too individualistic. According to other authors, SE should be a more radical departure from the classical one and, at the same time, generally replace it at the post of this discipline. Perspectives social epistemology Some representatives of social epistemology consider the concepts of rationality, truth, normativity to be generally alien to the socio-epistemological approach. This is the path to minimizing philosophy in epistemology, to transforming the latter into a branch of sociology or psychology. But even so, it is difficult to completely abandon some of the basic norms of rational discourse that restrict the freedom of permissiveness in theoretical consciousness. They form the basis of the version of social epistemology that is being developed by the author of these lines and his colleagues. The first fundamental thesis we designate as anthropologism: a person has a mind that distinguishes him from other natural phenomena, endows him with special abilities and special responsibility. Anthropologism opposes total ecology and biologism, which affirm the equality of all biological species and the primacy of man's natural conditioning over sociocultural one. The second thesis - the thesis of reflexivity - emphasizes the difference between image and object, knowledge and consciousness, method and activity, and indicates that the normative approach applies only to the first members of these dichotomies. This thesis is opposed to extreme descriptivism in the style of L. Wittgenstein, who exaggerates the importance of case studies and the practice of participatory observation. Criticism is the third thesis of the new social epistemology. It involves radical doubt, the application of Occam's razor to the results of interpretation, intuitive insight, and creative imagination. The edge of criticism is aimed at mystical intuitionism as an epistemological practice of connecting to the "stream of world consciousness." This does not mean limiting epistemological analysis to scientific knowledge. Forms of extra-scientific knowledge should, of course, be studied using objective sources - the results of religious studies, ethnographic, cultural studies. And, finally, the regulatory ideal of truth should be preserved as a condition for theoretical knowledge and its analysis. At the same time, it is necessary to construct a typological definition of truth that would allow for operational use in the context of a variety of types of knowledge and activity. This position is opposed to both naive realism and relativism. About the subject S. NS. With all the obviousness of the central question - what is sociality? - it is rarely explicitly posed and is just as rarely purposefully addressed in foreign works on S. e. a banal definition of sociality as interests, political forces, the sphere of irrational, interactions, groups and communities. It turns out that S. e. simply borrows an element of the subject area from sociology, cultural studies, history and social psychology, which fits well into the naturalistic orientation of a number of trends in modern philosophy. However, philosophical thinking itself, as a rule, presupposes a different position.

Philosophy gives independent definitions of man and the world, proceeding precisely from their correlation and constructing a specific concept of "man's world". Therefore, one of the main tasks of S. e. today - to understand what kind of sociality we are talking about in the context of the philosophical analysis of knowledge. Clarify total her understanding of the relationship the development of knowledge to sociality and the relationship of sociality to knowledge - allows, the typology of sociality. The first type of sociality is the penetration of knowledge with forms of activity and communication, the ability to express them in a specific way, by assimilating and displaying their structure. This is the "internal sociality" of cognition, a property that is inherent in human cognitive activity, even if it is excluded from all available social connections (Robinson Crusoe). The ability of the subject to think, generalizing his practical acts and subjecting the procedures of thinking itself to reflection, is a socio-cultural product inherent in a person by education and experience. At the same time, the subject produces ideal schemes and conducts thought experiments, creating conditions for the possibility of activity and communication. The second type of sociality - "external sociality" - acts as the dependence of the spatio-temporal characteristics of knowledge on the state of social systems (speed, breadth, depth, openness, secrecy). Social systems also form the requirements for knowledge and criteria for its acceptability. The cognizing subject uses images and analogies gleaned in contemporary society. Natural science atomism was inspired by individualistic ideology and morality. Within the framework of the mechanistic paradigm, God himself received the interpretation of the "supreme watchmaker." The methodology of empiricism and experimentalism is due to travel and adventure in the context of great geographical discoveries. All these are signs of the attribution of knowledge to the era of the New Time. The third type of sociality is represented by "open sociality". It expresses the involvement of knowledge in cultural dynamics, or the fact that the aggregate sphere of culture is the main cognitive resource of a person. The ability of a person to remove a randomly chosen book from the library shelf and become dependent on the thoughts read is a sign of his belonging to culture. Culture is the source of creativity, creativity is the openness of knowledge to culture, you can create only standing on the shoulders of titans. The same circumstance that knowledge exists in many different cultural forms and types is another manifestation of open sociality. A concrete study of the types of sociality presupposes the involvement of the results and methods of the social sciences and the humanities in the epistemological turnover.

Hence the importance of the interdisciplinary orientation of S. e. S.'s methods. Among the specific techniques of S. e. the leading place is occupied by borrowings from social sciences and humanities. The practice of case studies and "field" studies of laboratories is adopted from the history and sociology of science. The theory of rhetoric is applied as an approach to the analysis of scientific discourse. Another analytical method used in the theory of e. Is the theory of probability. For example, it can be used to prescribe rational changes in the degree of conviction of a cognitive subject, in assessing the degree of trust in other subjects and their degree of conviction (see: Lehrer K., Wagner C. Rational Consensus in Science and Society. Dordrecht, 1981) ... For social epistemology, some methods of economic analysis, game theory can also be useful. As the most typical method of S. e.

31. Phenomenology as a direction of modern philosophy

case studies. The idea of case studies consists in the most complete and theoretically unloaded description of a specific cognitive episode in order to demonstrate (“show”) the sociality of cognition. The task is to show how social factors determine the fundamental decisions of the cognizing subject (formation, promotion, justification, choice of an idea or concept).

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is one of the leading and most influential trends in philosophy and culture of the twentieth century. The ideas of the founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), had a tremendous impact on all major trends in philosophy, as well as on law and sociology, political science, ethics, aesthetics, psychology and psychiatry. The spread of phenomenology is not limited to the limits of European philosophizing: having originated in Germany, it has developed, and continues to actively develop in other countries, including Russia.

The main idea of phenomenology is intentionality (from Latin intentio - striving), which presupposes the indissolubility and at the same time irreducibility of consciousness and being - human being and the objective world. Intentionality expresses in itself the original thesis of Husserl "Back to the objects themselves", which means the recreation of directly experienced life meanings that arise between consciousness and the object.

From the point of view of phenomenology, the formulation of the question of the world itself is completely incorrect - objects must be understood as correlated with consciousness. The objectivity of the world is correlative - objects are always correlated with memory, fantasy, judgment, that is, objectivity is always experienced. Consciousness is always consciousness of something, therefore, phenomenological analysis is an analysis of consciousness itself, in which it represents the world.

The meaning and meaning of the object in this case correlates with how it is grasped by consciousness. Thus, phenomenology is focused not on identifying previously unknown knowledge about the world and bringing it into line with what is already known, but on representing the very process of perceiving the world - that is, to show the conditions and possibilities of knowledge as a process of forming meanings that are perceived in the properties and functions of the object. Consciousness, in other words, is indifferent to whether objects really exist or whether they are an illusion or a mirage, because in the reality of consciousness, experiences are intertwined just like jets of water twist and intertwine in a common stream. In consciousness there is nothing but the meanings of real, illusory or imaginary objects.

Phenomenology has undergone significant changes both in the concept of its founder, Husserl, and in many modifications, so that its history, notes the famous French philosopher Paul Ricoeur, can be presented as the history of Husserl's "heresies". Husserl begins with the idea of creating a science of science - philosophical science. Philosophy, he writes, "is called upon to be a rigorous science and, moreover, one that would satisfy the highest theoretical needs, and in an ethical and religious respect would make possible a life governed by pure norms of reason." The philosopher wants to clearly answer the question of what are essentially "things", "events", "laws of nature", and therefore asks about the essence of theory and the very possibility of its existence. Phenomenology at the beginning of its formation aspired precisely to build philosophy as a rigorous science. This is exactly what - "Philosophy as a strict science" - is called one of the main works of Husserl of the early period.

Especially actively in his early works, Husserl opposes psychologism, which has grown on the basis of experimental psychology that claims to be accurate. Psychologism developed such an idea of logic and logical thinking, in which forms of life behavior of people were based on it - the truth in this case turned out to be relative and subjectivized, since it acted as a result of a person's “feeling” of his experiences in the world of objects.

Rightly pointing out the proximity of psychologism with the idea of Protagoras, according to which man is the measure of all things , Husserl will develop his science of science as a doctrine of a single truth that overcomes all temporality. And this ideal truth must certainly have a universal obligation and the property of self-evidence.

The discovery of this obvious truth presupposes a special method of moving towards it.

The meaning of the word PHENOMENOLOGY in the latest philosophical dictionary

Husserl starts from the position he calls natural attitude, in which the philosopher, like every person, is addressed to the fullness of human life - its natural course, in the process of which humanity purposefully transforms the world in acts of will and action. Natural world is understood in this case as the entire cumulative completeness of things, living beings, social institutions and forms of cultural life. The natural attitude is nothing more than a form of realization of the aggregate life of mankind, proceeding naturally and practically. But the true philosophical position, which Husserl calls transcendental, is carried out in opposition to the natural attitude - what is significant for everyday life must be eliminated from philosophical knowledge. The philosopher should not turn the natural attitude into the starting point of his analysis, he should only preserve the idea of the givenness of the world in which a person lives.

It is necessary, therefore, to reveal the generic essence of thinking and cognition, and for this to carry out a special cognitive action, which is called phenomenological reduction ... The natural attitude must be overcome by the transcendental understanding of consciousness.

The first stage of phenomenological reduction is eidential reduction, in which the phenomenologist "brackets" the entire real world, refrains from any evaluations and judgments.

Husserl calls this operation « era» ... All statements that arise in the course of the natural attitude turn out to be the result « era» overcome. Freed at the first stage from the use of any judgments concerning the space-time existence of the world, the phenomenologist at the second stage of the phenomenological reduction brackets all the judgments and thoughts of an ordinary person about consciousness and about spiritual processes.

Only after the operation of purification is consciousness able to deal with the consideration of phenomena - integral elements of the perception of the world, captured in intuitive acts. This stream of consciousness cannot be observed from the outside, it can only be experienced - and in this experience each person establishes for himself the undoubted truth of the essences of the world. The meaning of life is, as it were, directly grasped by the experiencing consciousness of the phenomenologist.

In the phenomenological intentional analysis, an integral sequence of perceptions is built, the main positions of which are the acts of the objective aspect (noema) and the aspect of consciousness (noesis) ... The unity of the noematic and noetic aspects of conscious activity ensures, according to Husserl, the synthesis of consciousness: the integrity of an object is reproduced by an integral consciousness. Representative of the philosophy of existentialism J. P. Sartre, who was strongly influenced by the ideas of Husserl, writes that “Husserl again introduced charm into things themselves. He returned to us the world of artists and prophets: frightening, hostile, dangerous, with shelters of the grace of love. " In other words, phenomenology restores confidence in the things themselves without dissolving them in the perceiving consciousness. There are grounds for such a statement: the phenomenological method is interpreted as a way of intuitive-contemplative "discernment of the essence" through phenomena. That is, the given of consciousness through which this or that reality or semantic content presents itself.

Husserl denotes the phenomenon with the following words: "self-itself-through-self-revealing, revealing." The peculiarity of the phenomenon is that it is multi-layered and includes both direct evidence and experience, and meanings and meanings that are assumed through the object. It is in the meanings that the relation to the object is constructed: it turns out that to use statements in accordance with the meaning and to enter into a relation to the object with the help of the statement means the same thing.

Consciousness in this case, as it were, opens up to meet the objective world, seeing in it not random features and characteristics, but objective universality. At the same time, the phenomenon is not an element of the real world - it is created and controlled by the phenomenologist for the most complete penetration into the stream of perceiving consciousness and the discovery of its essence.

Phenomenological reflection means nothing more than an appeal to the analysis of the essential principles of individual consciousness, in which self-observation, introspection, and self-reflection are very important. The phenomenologist must learn to imagine - to see essences in the world and freely navigate in the world of "self-revealing essences" he creates. In this case, the structure of perception is temporal or temporal: now - the point is connected with retention (recall) and protention (expectation). Note that in this case, Husserl develops the understanding of time that was already formed in medieval philosophy by Augustine: we are talking not about objective time, but about the time of experience. Ultimately, the phenomenological understanding of consciousness and time turns out to be focused on the utmost attention to the world and is expressed in the imperative: "Look!"

Subsequently, phenomenology evolved from an empirical or descriptive orientation towards transcendentalism, seeking to correlate the idea of intentionality and a phenomenon with the structure of the real world as a universe of vital connections. In the works of the 20-30s. Husserl addresses problems intersubjectivity, which raises the question of the socio-historical prerequisites for the development of consciousness. In other words, the problem of interaction and understanding of phenomenological subjects is being solved, because the procedure of "parenthesis" in a certain sense led to the loss of the possibilities of understanding and communication.

Justifying this sphere of interaction, Husserl introduces the concept "Life world" , which is understood as the sphere and the totality of "primordial evidence" and is the basis of all knowledge. A person realizes a certain perception of himself as immersed in the world and retains this perception in its constant significance and further development. The life world is prescientific in the sense that it was given before science and continues to exist in this origin. The world of life is primordial and primary to all possible experience. The task of phenomenology in this case is to give value to the primordial primordial right of vital evidence and to recognize the undoubted priority of the life world over the values of objectively logical evidence.

Truth appears as the correctness of representation revealed to man.

The Russian phenomenologist G. Shpet turned to the study of the problems of ethnic psychology as an irreducible given of ideological integrity and experience. J. - P. Sartre presents a description of the existential structures of consciousness, deprived of the possibility of understanding and identification. The Polish phenomenologist R. Ingarden investigated the problems of life, cultural (cognitive, aesthetic and social) and moral values and customs, understanding the values of cultural entities that mediate between man and the world. For the French phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty, the source of the meaning of existence is in the human animate body, which acts as a mediator between consciousness and the world.

Having developed ideas about the existence of consciousness, phenomenology has had and continues to influence most of the philosophical and cultural trends of the twentieth century. The problems of sense, meaning, interpretation, interpretation and understanding are actualized precisely by the phenomenological tradition, the merit of which lies in the fact that in the phenomenological doctrine of consciousness, the limiting possibilities of various ways of meaning formation are revealed.

Phenomenology is understood, first of all, as a method based on an intuitive perception of the essence of things (to return “to the things themselves”), through the purification of consciousness from empirical details and verbal layers. The founder of phenomenology E. Husserl, author of works - "Logical Investigations" (1901), "The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology" (1936). Already in his early works, he tries to identify the obvious foundations of scientific knowledge (mathematics). In the process of analysis, Husserl comes to the need to eliminate psychological aspects from the cognitive process and identify its absolute sources, pure logic. To purify the consciousness of the subject, to reveal its absolute foundations, Husserl proposes a rather complicated method - phenomenological reduction, in the process of which the object, the subject, the very act of comprehension are eliminated from consciousness. All that remains is the unsubjective structure of relations (or "transcendental consciousness").

An important aspect of the reduction procedure is "Era"(refraining from judging the existence of objects). To characterize the structure of purified consciousness, Husserl uses the term "Intentionality"(focus on the subject). The unnaturalness of the reduction procedure is the main difficulty of the phenomenological method. After the removal from consciousness of thoughts and feelings about the subject and the subject of cognition, only the meanings of possible objects remain ( "Noems") and the relationship to these meanings ("Noesis")... This structure of absolute meanings and relationships is explored by phenomenology. In fact, this is the structure of the "transcendental I", the structure of the world of culture, universal, independent of specific experience, characteristics of human experience (not only scientific, but also everyday life). There is a connection with Kantianism, but Husserl singles out the subjectless structures of any vision of the world, independent of the subject of experience. In his later works, he explores the relationship of different perceptions, the relationship between "I" and another "I". Husserl criticizes the science of the modern era as divorced from its foundations, from life world(the world of life meanings). In this he sees the reason for the crisis of European science and the culture based on it. The phenomenological approach is called upon to overcome the one-sidedness of science, to reach new horizons.

23. Hermeneutics: genesis, main ideas and representatives.

Under hermeneutics(from the Greek word hermeneutike - the art of clarification, interpretation) in a broad sense, they understand the theory and practice of interpreting texts. It is rooted in ancient Greek philosophy, where the art of interpreting various kinds of allegories, statements containing ambiguous symbols was practiced. Christian theologians also resorted to hermeneutics to interpret the Bible.

Understanding and correct interpretation of the understood is, in general terms, the hermeneutic method of obtaining humanitarian knowledge. Hence, the comprehension and assimilation of the meaning of the text are procedures that are qualitatively different from the method of explaining natural and social laws. Since the subject basis of the humanities is the text, a powerful tool for its analysis is language, the word as an essential, system-forming element of culture. Hence, the hermeneutic methodology of the humanities is closely related to the analysis of culture and its phenomena.

Modern hermeneutics, as it developed in the XX century, includes not only a specific scientific research method used in humanitarian knowledge. This is also a special direction in philosophy. The ideas of philosophical hermeneutics were developed in the West primarily in the works of the German philosopher, the representative of the philosophy of life Wilhelm Dilthey, the Italian representative of classical hermeneutics Emilio Betti (1890-1970), one of the greatest philosophers of the 20th century Martin Heidegger, the German philosopher Hans Georg Gadamer (1900-2002 ).

V. Dilthey laid the foundations of philosophical hermeneutics, seeking to substantiate the specifics of the sciences of the spirit (that is, the humanities) in their distinction from the natural sciences. He saw such a difference in the method of understanding as a direct, intuitive comprehension of some spiritual integrity (or integral experience). If the sciences of nature resort to the method of explanation, which deals with external experience and is associated with the activity of the mind, then in order to comprehend the written manifestations of life, to study the culture of the past, according to Dilthey, it is necessary to understand and interpret its phenomena as moments of the integral spiritual life of one or more a different era, which determines the specifics of the sciences of the spirit.

24. Philosophy of life.

Practical, vital activity appears in the "philosophy of life" as the basis of being. German philosophers W. Dilthey, G. Simmel, F. Nietzsche, and the French thinker A. Bergson belong to this broad, unformed movement.

Philosophical doctrine F. Nietzsche (1844-1900) inconsistent and contradictory, but it is one in spirit, tendency and purpose. It is not limited to the framework of the philosophy of life. His main works: "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" (1885), "Beyond Good and Evil" (1886) and others. Early Nietzsche was influenced by Schopenhauer, but unlike the latter, he paid much less attention to the issues of being and cognition. His work is mainly devoted to criticism of European culture and moral issues. Irrational will, "life" in its opposite to scientific reason, forms the original reality. The world is the world of our life. A world independent of us does not exist. The world is viewed in the process of continuous formation, it is a world of constant struggle for existence, a clash of wills. Nietzsche, like other contemporary philosophers, biologizes the world, which for him is based on the “organic world”. Its formation is a manifestation of the will to power, which generates a relatively stable order of reality, since a greater will wins over a lesser one. Unlike Schopenhauer, Nietzsche proceeds from the pluralism of wills, their struggle shapes reality. "Will" is understood more specifically - as the will to power. Finally, he defends the need to strengthen the will, criticizing Schopenhauer for his desire to calm the latter. It is necessary to strive not for non-being, but for the fullness of life - this is the principle of F. Nietzsche's philosophy. He is critical of the idea of development: there is only becoming and "Eternal return". Periodically there comes an era nihilism, chaos reigns, there is no meaning. There is a need for will, there is a reconciliation with oneself and the world repeats itself again. Eternal return is the fate of the world, on its basis the "love of rock" is formed. Cognition of the world is inaccessible to logic, generalizing science, cognition is a means of mastering the world, and not obtaining knowledge about the world. Truth is just a "useful delusion." In the process of cognition, we do not penetrate into the essence of the world, but only give an interpretation of the world, the will to power is manifested in the creation of its “world” by a human subject.

Criticizing the culture of his day, Nietzsche notes a special historical place of his era. This is the era when "God is dead" and Nietzsche proclaims new era arrival superman... His Zarathustra is the prophet of this idea. Modern man is weak, he is "something that needs to be overcome." The Christian religion as a religion of compassion is the religion of the weak, it weakens the will to power. Hence the anti-Christianity of Nietzsche (with a high assessment of the personality of Jesus). The Christian Church, he believes, turned everything upside down (“turned any truth into a lie”). Needed "change of world view". Traditional morality is also subject to reassessment. Modern morality - this morality of the weak, "slaves", it is an instrument of their domination over the strong. One of the culprits of the moral upheaval is Socrates, and therefore Nietzsche idealizes the pre-Socratics, whose morality has not yet been perverted. Nietzsche extols aristocratic morality, which is characterized by courage, generosity, individualism. It is based on the connection between man and the earth, the joy of love, common sense. This is the morality of a superman, a strong, free person who frees himself from illusions and realizes a high level of "will to power", returning "to the innocent conscience of a predatory beast." Nietzsche's declared "amoralism" is associated with the replacement of "morality of slaves" with "morality of masters." The new morality is, in fact, a new interpretation of the world. Nietzsche's philosophy often received ambiguous assessments: the ideologists of fascism tried to use it, they saw in it the ideology of the imperialist bourgeoisie. At the same time, she influenced a number of trends in modern philosophy and culture.