What is the gross formula. Formulas. Acquaintance with nitrogen. Amines

calculation of the amount of waste, the output of semi-finished products, gross weight, net weight, finished product weight.

1. Calculation of the amount of waste during mechanical culinary processing

(M otkh.):

M out. = M b * O / 100, where

M waste - the mass of waste during mechanical culinary processing, g (kg);

M b - gross weight, g (kg);

2. Calculation of the output of semi-finished products (Mp / f):

M p / f = M b * B p / f / 100, where

M p / f - weight of the semi-finished product, g (kg);

M b - gross weight, g (kg)

In p / f - semi-finished product output,%

3. Calculation of gross mass (M b):

M b = M n * 100 / (100-O), where

M b - gross weight, g (kg);

M n - net weight, g (kg);

О - waste during mechanical culinary processing,%

4. Calculation of net mass (M n):

M n = M b * (100-O) / 100, where

M n - net weight, g (kg);

M b - gross weight, g (kg);

О - waste during mechanical culinary processing,%

5. Calculation of the mass of the finished product (M got.):

M got. = M n * (100-P so.) / 100, where

M n - net weight, g (kg);

M n = M got. * 100 / (100-P so.), Where

M n - net weight, g (kg);

M goth. - the mass of the finished product, g (kg);

P thus. - losses during heat treatment,%

6. Formulas for calculating the nutritional and energy value of culinary products:

6.1 The content of nutrients in the product (K):

K = M N *TO spr / 100, where

M N is the net weight of the product according to the recipe, g;

6.2 The amount of food substance after heat treatment (P):

P = ΣK * P spr / 100, where

P is the amount of food substance after heat treatment (g, mg, μg);

ΣK is the total content of the desired food substance in the dish (g, mg, μg);

P spr - the safety of the food substance in the dish in accordance with the reference book,%.

6.3 P spr = 100 - P p.c. (%), where

P.v. - loss of food substance as a result of heat treatment (according to the reference book),%.

Appendix 3

DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL MAPS

A technological map for public catering products is a technical document drawn up on the basis of a collection of recipes for dishes, culinary products, bakery and flour confectionery products or a technical technological map. The technological map indicates the name of the enterprise, the source of the recipe, (Collection of recipes, the year of its publication, the number and version of the recipe, or the surname, name, patronymic of the author, year and number of the technical and technological map).

When describing the recipe, the consumption rate of products is indicated for 1 serving (per 1000 g) in grams and for the most frequently repeated batches of products manufactured at a given enterprise in kg. The recipes indicate the amount of salt, spices, herbs and other products that are usually indicated in the collections in the text or in table 28 "Consumption of salt and spices in the preparation of dishes and products."

The technology for preparing a dish, culinary or confectionery product is described sequentially with an indication of the equipment and inventory used. When describing the technology, the parameters of the technological process are indicated: the duration of heat treatment (min), temperature (° C), etc.; order of registration and serving of dishes. Organoleptic quality indicators are given: appearance, consistency, color, taste and smell.

In accordance with the rules for the provision of catering services, the manufacturer of culinary products is obliged to inform consumers about the nutritional and energy value of dishes, culinary, flour and confectionery products. Therefore, it is recommended to provide information on the nutritional and energy value of the dish (product) in the technological map.

Appendix (A2) gives a sample flow chart.

The molecular, or gross-formula, shows which atoms and in what quantity are included in the molecule, for example, C 6 H 6 CH 4 O C 2 H 3 Cl. O The molecular formula does not reflect the structure of the molecule The structural formula should reflect: the nature of the atoms that make up the molecule, their number and sequence of their connection to each other, as well as the type of bond between the atoms.

Hydrocarbons with four carbon atoms can have a branched, unbranched or cyclic carbon skeleton: Atoms in a molecule can be connected by single, double or triple bonds:

Electronic and structural formulas of molecules do not reflect the spatial structure of molecules. Atomic-orbital models of molecules A simple line (valence line) shows the orbital axes lying in the plane of the figure; solid wedge corresponds to AO located above the plane of the drawing; the hatched wedge represents the AO directed beyond this plane.

The essence of this process is the breaking of chemical bonds in the starting materials and the formation of new bonds in the reaction products. Organic reactions are written not in the form of equations, but in the form of reaction schemes, in which attention is paid not so much to the stoichiometric ratio of the reactants, but rather to the reaction conditions. In these schemes, the starting products (reagents) are separated from the reaction products by an arrow, above which the reaction conditions and catalysts are denoted, and under the arrow with a minus sign, the compounds that are formed during the reaction.

Decomposition reactions: As a result of the decomposition reaction from a molecule of a complex organic substance, slightly less complex or simple substances are formed: Splitting of the carbon skeleton of large molecules when heated and in the presence of catalysts (decomposition reactions at high temperatures are called pyrolysis) A molecule of a low-molecular compound is split off from two neighboring C-atoms (increase in the multiplicity of bonds) or from other atoms with the formation of a cycle

Two new bonds are formed in the reactant molecule. In this case, the multiplicity of the bond of the reactant decreases. An atom or a group of atoms is replaced by another atom or a group of atoms: The starting material and the reaction product are isomers (structural or spatial).

Classification of reactions by direction Chemical reaction, which under the same conditions can go in forward and backward directions. When the rates of forward and reverse reactions equalize (state of chemical equilibrium), the reversible reaction ends. Goes almost all the way in one direction.

Conditions for carrying out radical reactions: elevated temperature (often the reaction is carried out in the gas phase), the action of light or radiation, non-polar solvents, the presence of compounds - sources of free radicals (initiators) Reactions with the participation of free radicals are typical for compounds with non-polar and weakly polar bonds. Such bonds (for example, C – C, C – H, Cl – Cl, O – O, etc.) are prone to homolytic rupture

Heterolytic reactions (ionic) General reaction scheme: CH 3) 3 C Cl + H 2 O (CH 3) 3 C-OH + HCl Process steps

Conditions of conducting ionic reactions: low temperature; polar solvents capable of solvation of the resulting ions. Such reactions are typical for compounds with polar bonds (C-O, C-N, C-Cl) and bonds with high polarizability (C = C, C = C-C = C, C = O, etc.). The more polar the bond, the easier it is broken by the ionic mechanism !!!

In 1815, the French chemist Biot discovered a new type of optical isomerism, or specular. He found that some. organic substances in a liquid or dissolved state rotate the plane of polarized light.

Compounds that change (rotate) the plane of polarization are called optically active; they exist in the form of two optical isomers. , and One of them rotates the plane of polarization to the right, and the other - by the same angle, but to the left. To denote these rotations, the signs (+) and (-) are used, which are placed in front of the formula for the optical isomer. All optically active substances contain in their molecules at least one asymmetric carbon atom (in the formulas this atom is denoted by an asterisk), that is, carbon, which is associated with four different atoms or groups of atoms

Any organic compound containing an asymmetric carbon atom can be represented in the form of two spatial forms (models), which, when superimposed in space, cannot be combined with each other. These two forms (models) differ from each other as an object from their mirror image. Therefore, this isomerism is called "mirror". mirror Optical isomers of butanol-2

Molecules (or their models) that cannot be combined in space (when superimposed) and which relate to each other as an object to their mirror image are called chiral (from the Greek cheiros - hand, likeness). An example is the hands - right and left, which do not overlap when applied. Thus, optical isomerism is a chirality-related phenomenon.

When displayed optically active substances on paper, use the projection formulas proposed by E. Fischer. Fischer's formula

It was conventionally assumed that optically active compounds, in which the hydroxyl in the projection formula is located to the right of the asymmetric carbon atom, belongs to the D-series, and to the left - to the L-series. Glyceric aldehyde D (+) - glyceric aldehyde L (-) - glyceric aldehyde was chosen as such a standard

Conformational isomerism With the internal rotation of groups of atoms around simple bonds, various spatial structures, called conformations, arise. These movements do not disturb the structure of the molecules. Internal rotation around C-H bonds cannot change the spatial orientation of atoms in molecules (therefore, different conformations of the methane molecule do not arise). However spinning around communication C-C in the ethane molecule leads to a huge variety of conformation. The most important and most distinct from each other are called occluded and inhibited conformations. Conformations are represented by both spatial and projection formulas. In this case, the so-called Newman projection is used: the molecule is oriented in such a way that the bond around which the rotation occurs is projected into the center of the circle, and the bonds from the atom closest to the observer are depicted by lines emanating from the center of the circle, and the bonds emanating from the distant atom are drawn lines outside the circle.

The gross formula of the substance and its transformation into toluene indicate that it is methylcyclohexadiene. It is able to add saleic anhydride, which is typical for conjugated dienes.
The gross formula of a substance is reliably determined only by a combination of elemental analysis with the determination of molecular weight.
The determination of the gross formula of a substance therefore requires an analysis of the homologous series of fragment ions and characteristic differences.
How the gross formula of a substance is established.
In addition to the PMR spectrum and the gross formula of a substance, to establish the structural formula, there are data on its nature or origin, without which an unambiguous interpretation of the spectrum would be impossible.
At the beginning of each article, the gross formula of the substance, its name and structural formula are given. The search for the required substance in the reference book is made according to the known gross formula and formula index or according to the known name and alphabetical index located at the end of the reference book.
In the first column of all tables, the gross formula of the substance is given, in the next column - its chemical formula. Then the temperature at which the measurements were taken is indicated. For halogens (except for iodine), only the data obtained at the standard NQR temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) are given - Data for other temperatures are given in the absence of measurements at 77 K, which is specified in the notes.
Mass spectrometry methods are used to identify substances, determine the gross formulas of substances and their chemical structure... Physical characteristics such as the ionization potential and the breaking energy of chemical bonds are important for chemistry.
To find any compound in the formula index, you must first calculate the gross formula of the substance and arrange the elements according to the Hill system: for inorganic substances in alphabetical order, for example, Н3О4Р (phosphoric acid), CuO4S (copper sulfate), O7P2Zn2 (zinc pyrophosphate), etc. ...
To find any compound in the formula index, you must first calculate the gross formula of the substance and arrange the elements according to the Hill system: for inorganic substances in alphabetical order, for example, НзО4Р (phosphoric acid), CuO4S (copper sulfate), O7P2Zn2 (zinc pyrophosphate), etc. ...
The capabilities of low-resolution mass spectrometry do not allow separating the second and third stages of group identification, and the determination of the gross formula of a substance is carried out simultaneously with limiting the number of possible variants of its assignment to specific homologous series. By definition, a homologous group unites series of compounds, the mass numbers of which are comparable in modulus 14, including isobaric ones. In some cases, isobaric compounds of different series exhibit similar fragmentation patterns, which is manifested in the similarity of their low-resolution mass spectra.
The mass of a molecular ion (180 1616) is measured with high accuracy, which allows you to immediately determine the gross formula of a substance.
Based on the foregoing, in the elemental analysis of organic compounds, free-weight methods for determining the stoichiometry of molecules characterizing the gross formula of a substance are proposed. Basically, these methods are designed to determine the stoichiometry of organogenic elements: carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. They are based on the comparison of analytical signals of products-mineralization of a sample of a substance. Such signals are, for example, areas of chromatographic peaks, volumes of titrant common for two elements, etc. Thus, it is possible to work without balances with micro- and ultramicro-quantities.
Quantitative analysis of polymers includes the following questions: 1) quantitative elemental analysis, which allows to establish the gross formula of a substance; 2) determination of the number of functional and end groups in polymer chains; 3) the definition of a pier.
Exact molecular weight values can be obtained from mass spectra and form the basis for certain alternative assumptions about the gross formula of a substance, its qualitative and quantitative compositions. So, in particular, an odd value of molecular weight can serve as proof of the presence of one (three, five, generally an odd number) nitrogen atom in a molecule: nitrogen is the only organogenic element with an odd valence at an even atom. In contrast, an even molecular weight indicates the absence of nitrogen or the possibility of an even number of nitrogen atoms. Thus, for example, an organic substance with M 68 can have only three gross formulas: CsHs, 4 6, or C3H, and taking them into account will greatly facilitate the interpretation of spectral data and the final choice of the structure.

An even more valuable source of essential additional information the data of quantitative (elemental) analysis are used, which, in combination with the determination of molecular weight, make it possible to establish the gross formula of a substance.
An even more valuable source of the necessary additional information is the data of quantitative (elemental) analysis, which, in combination with the determination of molecular weight, make it possible to establish the gross formula of a substance. The classical (chemical) methods for establishing the gross formula are now increasingly being replaced by mass spectrometric methods based on accurate measurement of the intensity of isotope lines of molecular ions or very accurate measurement of mass numbers on high-resolution spectrometers.
An even more valuable source of the necessary additional information is the data of quantitative (elemental) analysis, which, in combination with the determination of the molecular weight, make it possible to establish the gross formula of a substance.
Note that this is a rare case when the gross formula corresponds to one substance. Usually, based on these data, we can only indicate the gross formula of the substance, but not the structural formula. And often we cannot even relate a substance to a certain class. To obtain the structural formula of a substance, additional data on the chemical properties of this substance are required.
Elemental analysis is used for the quantitative determination of organic and organoelement compounds containing nitrogen, halogens, sulfur, as well as arsenic, bismuth, mercury, antimony and other elements. Elemental analysis can also be used to qualitatively confirm the presence of these elements in a test compound or to establish or confirm the gross formula of a substance.
The last series is less probable, since its feature is the presence in the spectra of intense peaks of the 4th homologous group, which are absent in the case under consideration. The subsequent refinement of the assignment can be unambiguously carried out by the spectra of the ion series (see Section 5.5); however, given the high intensity of the peaks of molecular ions in this spectrum, it is advisable to refine the gross formula of the substance using isotopic signals.
The concept of homology is one of the most important in organic chemistry, and homologous series form the basis of the modern classification of organic compounds. The issues of belonging of compounds to different homologous series are very important and are associated, for example, with the problems of isomerism in organic chemistry, in particular, with the creation of efficient algorithms for determining the number of possible isomers by the gross formula of a substance using a computer.
Scheme for quantitative elemental analysis. Elemental analysis tends to reduce manual labor and increase the accuracy of determinations. The development of instrumental technology made it possible in the most last years to develop a device for automatic elemental analysis, in which carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen formed during the combustion of a sample are directed by a stream of helium into a gas chromatograph connected to the device, with the help of which they are simultaneously quantitatively determined. On the other hand, the use of a high resolution mass spectrometer (see section 1.1.9.3) allows in a simple way determine the gross formula of a substance without performing quantitative elemental analysis.
An interactive mode of operation of the RASTR system has been developed. The exchange of information between a person and a computer is carried out through an alphanumeric display. The program makes a survey of the worker, at the same time indicating the form of the answer. Information is required on the types of experimental spectra available, their features and spectral parameters. After entering all the spectral information and the gross formula of the substance, the operator indicates the mode of constructing implications - logical relationships between the characteristics of the spectrum and the structure of the compound. The operator has the ability to make any changes to them: exclude or add information to library fragments, remove any implications or add new ones. As a result of solving a system of consistent logical equations, the display shows sets of fragments that satisfy the spectra and chemical information.
When processing mass spectra manually, the necessary stage of identification is to determine the class of the substance. This stage is also explicitly or implicitly included in many complex identification algorithms designed for computers. A similar operation can be performed in the case when the mass spectrum of the analyte was not previously known, but the fragmentation patterns of the class of compounds to which it belongs are well studied. This is possible on the basis of qualitative and quantitative patterns of fragmentation that are common for a given class or homologous series. If for an unknown component it was possible to register such an important peak for identification as the peak of a molecular ion, then, in combination with information about the class of the compound, the molecular weight allows one to determine the gross formula of the substance. It should be noted that the use of isotopic peaks to determine the gross formula in gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis is of limited importance and is possible only at high intensity of these peaks and the peak of the molecular ion. For individual groups for isomers of aromatic and paraffinic hydrocarbons, algorithms for individual identification have been developed, based on some of the quantitative features of their mass spectra.

Gross, structural and electronic formulas of compounds

Wutlerov's second postulate. Chemical reactivity certain groups of atoms essentially depend on their chemical environment, that is, on which atoms or groups of atoms a certain group is adjacent to.

The compound formulas that we used in the study of inorganic chemistry reflect only the number of atoms of an element in a molecule. Such formulas are called "gross formulas" or "molecular formulas".

As it follows from Wutlerov's first postulate, in organic chemistry, not only the number of certain atoms in a molecule is important, but also the order of their binding, that is, it is not always advisable to use gross formulas for organic compounds. For example, for clarity, when considering the structure of the methane molecule, we used structural formulas - a schematic representation of the order of binding of atoms into a molecule. When depicting structural formulas, a chemical bond is denoted by a line, a double bond - by two lines, etc.

The electronic formula (or the Lewis formula) is very similar to the structural formula, but in this case, it is not formed bonds that are depicted, but electrons, both those that form a bond and those that do not.

For example, the already discussed sulfate acid can be written using the following formulas. The gross formula is H 2 80 4, the structural and electronic formulas are as follows:

Structural formulas organic compounds

Almost all organic substances consist of molecules, the composition of which is expressed by chemical formulas, for example, CH 4, C 4 H 10, C 2 H 4 O 2. And what is the structure of the molecules of organic substances? The founders of organic chemistry, F. Kekule and A. M. Vutlerov, asked themselves this question in the middle of the 19th century. Investigating the composition and properties of various organic substances, they came to the following conclusions:

The atoms in the molecules of organic substances are connected by chemical bonds in a certain sequence, according to their valence. This sequence is commonly referred to as chemical structure;

Carbon atoms in all organic compounds are chotirivalent, and other elements show their characteristic valences.

These provisions are the basis of the theory of the structure of organic compounds, formulated by OM Butlerov in 1861.

The chemical structure of organic compounds is clearly represented by structural formulas, in which chemical bonds between atoms are denoted by dashes. The total number of dashes extending from the symbol of each element is equal to its atom valency. Multiple connections are depicted with two or three dashes.

Using the example of a saturated hydrocarbon of propane C 3 H 8, let us consider how to draw up the structural formula of an organic substance.

1. Draw a carbon skeleton. In this case, the chain consists of three carbon atoms:

C-C- WITH

2. Carbon is tetravalent, therefore, from each carbon atom we draw insufficient lines in such a way that there are four lines next to each atom:

3. We add the symbols of the Hydrogen atoms:

Structural formulas are often written in an abbreviated form, without depicting the C - H relationship. Abbreviated structural formulas are much more compact than expanded ones:

CH 3 - CH 2 - CH 3.

Structural formulas show only the sequence of joining atoms, but do not reflect the spatial structure of molecules, in particular bond angles. It is known, for example, that the angle between the C bonds in propane is 109.5 °. However, the structural formula of propane looks like this angle is 180 °. Therefore, it would be more correct to write down the structural formula of propane in a less convenient, but more true form:

Professional chemists use the following structural formulas, in which neither carbon atoms nor hydrogen atoms are shown at all, but only the carbon skeleton is depicted in the form of interconnected C-C bonds, as well as functional groups. So that the skeleton does not look like one continuous line, chemical bonds depict at an angle to each other. So, in the propane molecule C 3 H 8 there are only two C-C bonds, therefore propane is depicted with two dashes.

Homologous series of organic compounds

Consider the structural formulas of two compounds of the same class, for example, alcohols:

Molecules of methyl CH 3 OH and ethyl C 2 H 5 OH alcohols have the same OH functional group, common for the entire class of alcohols, but differ in the length of the carbon skeleton: in ethanol there is one more carbon atom. Comparing the structural formulas, it can be noted that with an increase in the carbon chain by one carbon atom, the composition of the substance changes to the CH 2 group, with the lengthening of the carbon chain by two atoms - by two CH 2 groups, etc.

Compounds of the same class, having a similar structure, but differing in composition by one or more CH 2 groups, are called homologues.

The CH 2 group is called the homologous difference. The collection of all homologues forms a homologous series. Methanol and ethanol belong to the homologous series of alcohols. All substances of the same series have similar chemical properties, and their composition can be expressed by a general formula. For example, the general formula for the homologous series of alcohols is C n H 2 n +1 VOH, where n - natural number.

Connection class	General formula	General formula with the allocation of a functional group
Alkanes	C n H 2 n + 2
Cycloalkani	C n H 2 n
Alkenes	C n H 2 n
Alkadieni	C n H 2 n-2
Alkini	C n H 2 n-2
Single-core arenas (homologous series to benzenes)	C n H 2 n-6
Monohydric alcohols	С n Н 2 n + 2 В	С n Н 2 n +1 В H
Polyhydric alcohols	С n Н 2 n + 2 О x	С n Н 2 n + 2-x (В H) x
Aldehydes	С n Н 2 n В	С n Н 2 n +1 CHO
Monobasic carboxylic acids	С n Н 2 n О 2	С n Н 2 n +1 COOH
Esters	С n Н 2 n В	С n Н 2 n +1 COOC n H 2n + 1
Carbohydrates	С n (Н 2 О) m
Primary amines	С n Н 2 n + 3 N	С n Н 2 n +1 NH 2
Amino acids	С n Н 2 n +1 NO	H 2 NC n H 2n COOH

What does it mean, what it consists of and how to calculate. For the sake of order, let's repeat a rule that comes from school: weight, or rather mass, is nothing more than the sum of the mass of the goods (net) and tare (packaging). It is with the addition of these two indicators that the gross is formed. The simplest tasks were for calculating products without packaging. For example, it was necessary to calculate how many kilograms of bananas are in a box if it itself weighs one kilogram, and total weight four. In high school, we were already asked how many servings can be made from 3 kg of potatoes, if the serving is 300 g, and the cleaning is 30% of the gross weight? Simple arithmetic operations developed our thinking and prepared for more serious and responsible tasks that we will receive upon leaving the walls of the school and university.

Trade

This is where the term "gross mass" is used with incredible frequency. Goods entering stores for sale are brought in packaging containers. This allows you to maintain a presentation, facilitates storage. But it will be sold without pallets and wooden boxes! What to do? Everything is trite and simple. The goods accounted for in the gross weight are put on the parcel. Selling will be net (this is the opposite value, the antipode (that is, net weight)). Net minus gross will give the tare weight.

By the way, very often the gross weight is written on the product label along with the net weight. But when we buy a chicken in a pallet (a small plastic basket) in a supermarket, we know how much the chick itself weighs, and how much it is packed in. Many manufacturers have stopped using the term "gross", and write separately the weight of the product and the weight of the tare / package. This is probably much more convenient for buyers.

The science

The next industry where this term is used no less than in school or a store is scientific activity... The gross formula, which is also empirical (experience is translated from Greek), is nothing more than a way to express practical experiences using generally recognized symbols. This is how experimental scientists formulate their discoveries, describing what was obtained experimentally.

There is a direct use of the term in economics, where theoretical values are "adjusted" to true (empirical) ones. In chemistry, a gross formula is nothing more than a way to present information about the quantitative composition of molecules, and not about the structural or isometric one. In physics, this phrase is used when it comes to the described experiment, but not supported by a sufficient number of arguments. Over time, such empirical (gross-formulas) "overgrow" the evidence base and are replaced by exact formulas.

Shipping

Ships and gross - what is this connection? It is clear if we are talking about cargo in containers (packaging), but what does the ships themselves have to do with it? In international maritime shipping this term is used to denote the registered tonnage. The size of the vessel is calculated in registration tons. This is not about weight / mass, but about volume. It is this indicator that is meant when we talk about the total volume of the premises of the entire vessel. That is, one gross register ton is equal to 2.83 cubic meters. m (100 cubic lb).

Rent of premises

This is another industry where the term "gross" is appropriate. In this context, it has the following meaning: the amount of remuneration for the use of a rented premises with utility bills. That is, the standard question asked by tenants to the lessor (who pays for electricity / gas / water?) May sound simpler (the gross amount is indicated in the contract?). Capacious and laconic, isn't it?

Insurance

There is another concept derived from the word brutto. Most often, this term is used by insurance companies when calculating insurance premiums. The gross premium is paid by the person insuring in accordance with the contract. This amount is the gross rate. It, in turn, consists of the net rate and load. The net rate forms the main fund from which payments will be made in an insured event. The load, in turn, consists of additional costs that must be paid Insurance Company... Roughly speaking, this is a contribution for the maintenance of personnel, premises, administrative activities, and, of course, the company's profit. As a result of banal summations, the insurance company calculates the amounts for payments under insurance contracts for the population and enterprises.

Cars and gross

What can it be if we are talking about a car? It is clear if we are talking about the mass of the car with and without loading, and if it proportionally depends on the amount of tax deductions, then how? The fact is that the volume of the engine, or rather its power, is subject to compulsory taxation. The higher the indicator, the more expensive the transport fee. Everybody knows!

For many, these words will seem surprising, but nevertheless there is a case, and the terminology is even more so. Although in fairness it must be said that in our country this formulation has practically outlived its usefulness. The fact is that some manufacturers indicated gross engine power. That is, the operation of the unit on the stand was taken as a basis, not burdened with mass, additional devices, in the form of a generator or a pump of the cooling system. In reality, the car could move using less power, by 20-30 percent. As a result, a decent margin is obtained, for an already considerable transport tax... To eliminate this kind of inaccuracies, it is necessary to conduct an examination, where certified workers will confirm that the capacity is indicated in gross, and not in net, as required by law.

Salary

Remuneration for labor and gross. What's this? Where is the connection? Everything is very simple. Often, employers, wishing to attract workers, announce the pay due to them for work without deducting taxes. The employee is naturally happy, but payday comes when everything falls into place. "On hand" the amount is issued much less than the promised one. That is, in this case, the remuneration for the work is net, and the amount initially indicated by the employer is the gross salary.

Balance

By the way, the company uses this term brutto more often than ever. One of the next reasons for application is the created financial document (balance of expenses and income), which allows you to summarize reliable information, to fully see the whole picture of what is happening in the company, minimize costs, and increase profits. The gross balance is considered "dirty", since it contains articles that show the depreciation of equipment, depreciation of premises and transport, etc. Most often, this type of balance is used for scientific or statistical work. In everyday practice, a net balance is created.

For the sake of fairness, it must be said that the gross balance of the bank, in contrast to the balance of an ordinary organization, is created in a slightly different way. It has the same indicators as the accounting report, but the number of items is smaller (as opposed to the gross balance sheet created for an ordinary organization or enterprise), but it shows the "picture" of what is happening more broadly, creates, so to speak, an enlarged balance sheet.

Profit

Gross revenue is nothing more than the total profit of production (enterprise), so to speak, gross. It does not take into account such items of expenses as taxes and salaries, depreciation of vehicles and premises. The total amount of all receipts is gross receipts. The company's net profit is visible from the net balance sheet, where the net proceeds are clearly stated.

Population

Statistical accounting is carried out by calculating the gross coefficient. This term does not mean any exact numbers, but, roughly speaking, builds illusory plans. The coefficient is calculated by the formula, and the result makes it clear how many girls will be able to give birth to (girls, not boys), who in the future will become mothers and give birth to their children. These figures are very arbitrary, show the approximate replacement of the population, excluding mortality. It should be noted that the calculation is carried out in two directions: the gross reproduction rate of the population and the gross fertility rate.

P.S.

From the above, we can conclude that a simple word that, at first glance, has an elementary meaning, in fact, may turn out to be much more capacious, used in accounting and tax, in transport companies and shipping, credit and insurance, and most importantly, it is quite reasonable ...

Let's once again repeat not so much all the meanings of the gross term as the industries and directions in which this word is used, and this is done on a global scale:

The weight of the goods in a container.
Registered tonnage of the vessel.
Gross profit of an enterprise, bank, insurance company, etc.
Organization balance (general accounting).
The total cost of the premium.
Car engine displacement.
Wage.
Theoretical data in generally accepted symbols.
Rent of premises.
Registration of the birth rate of the population.
Science and education.