Founding of Carthage. Carthage. History of the Phoenicians in North Africa. The position of the cities, allies and subjects of Carthage

Carthage is reassigning the former Phoenician colonies due to its advantageous geographical position. By the 3rd century BC. e. he becomes the largest state in the west of the Mediterranean Sea, subjugating southern Spain, the coast of North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. After the Punic Wars against Rome, Carthage lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e. , its territory was turned into the Roman province of Africa. Julius Caesar proposed to establish a colony in his place, which was founded after his death.

In the 420-430s, the control of the Western Roman Empire over the province was lost due to separatist revolts and the capture of the Vandals by the Germanic tribe, who founded their kingdom with the capital in Carthage. After the conquest of North Africa by the Byzantine emperor Justinian, the city of Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate. It finally lost its significance after the conquest by the Arabs at the end of the 7th century.

Location

Carthage was founded on a promontory with outlets to the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the Mediterranean sea trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Within the city, two large artificial harbors were dug: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, and the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbor, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the coast, which made the city impregnable from the sea.

The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers and a theater. It was divided into four identical residential areas. In the middle of the city there was a high citadel called Birsa. Carthage was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (according to some estimates, only Alexandria was larger) and was among the largest cities of antiquity.

State structure

The exact nature of the state structure of Carthage is difficult to determine due to the scarcity of sources. At the same time, his political system was described by Aristotle and Polybius.

Power in Carthage was in the hands of the aristocracy, divided into warring agrarian and commercial and industrial factions. The first were supporters of territorial expansion in Africa and opponents of expansion in other regions, which was adhered to by members of the second group, which tried to rely on the urban population. A public office could be bought.

The highest authority was the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. The executive branch was headed by two Sufets, similar to the Roman consuls. They were elected annually and performed mainly the duties of the commanders-in-chief of the army and navy. The Carthaginian Senate possessed legislative power, the number of senators was approximately three hundred, and the office itself was for life. A committee of 30 members was selected from the Senate, which carried out all the current work. The People's Assembly formally also played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely approached in case of disagreement between the Sufets and the Senate.

Around 450 BC. e. in order to counterbalance the desire of some clans (especially the Magon clan) to gain complete control over the council of elders, a council of judges was created. It consisted of 104 people and was originally supposed to try the rest of the officials at the end of their term of office, but later was involved in control and court.

From the subordinate tribes and cities, Carthage received supplies of military contingents, the payment of a large tax in cash or in kind. This system gave Carthage substantial financial resources and the ability to create a strong army.

Religion

Although the Phoenicians lived scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, they were united by common beliefs. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Every year, for centuries, Carthage sent messengers to Tire to make sacrifices there in the temple of Melqart. In Carthage, the main deities were Baal Hammon, whose name means "master brazier," and Tanith, identified with Astarte.
The most notorious feature of the religion of Carthage was the sacrifice of children. According to the words of Diodorus of Siculus, in 310 BC. BC, during the attack on the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion states: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as the sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation for the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the well-being of both the family and society. "

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a place where they found several rows of urns with charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was named Tophet. The burials were under steles, on which were written the requests that accompanied the sacrifices. It is estimated that the site contains the remains of over 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years.

However, the theory of mass child sacrifices in Carthage also has opponents. In 2010, a group of international archaeologists examined material from 348 burial urns. It turned out that about half of all children buried were either stillborn (at least 20 percent) or died shortly after giving birth. Only a few of the buried children were between five and six years old. Thus, children were cremated and buried in ceremonial urns regardless of the cause of their death, which was not always violent and took place on the altar. The study also disproved the legend that the Carthaginians sacrificed the first male born in every family.

Social system

According to its rights, the entire population was divided into several ethnic groups. The Libyans were in the most difficult position. The territory of Libya was divided into areas subordinate to strategists, taxes were very high, their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low. Siculs - the Sicilians (Greeks?) - made up the other part of the population; their rights in the field of political administration were limited by the "Sidonian law" (its content is unknown). The Siculs, however, enjoyed free trade. Immigrants from the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, immigrants - in a word, not Phoenicians) was similar to the Siculs - “Sidonian law”.

In order to avoid popular unrest, periodically the poorest population was expelled to the subordinate regions.

In this, the state differed from neighboring Rome, which gave the Italians part of their autonomy and freedom from paying regular taxes.

The Carthaginians exercised control over the dependent territories differently from the Romans. The latter, as we have seen, presented the conquered population of Italy with a certain amount of internal independence and freed it from paying any regular taxes. The Carthaginian government acted differently.

Economy

The city lay in the northeastern part of today's Tunisia, in the depths of a large bay, not far from the mouth of the river. Baghrad, which irrigated a fertile plain. There were sea routes between the eastern and western Mediterranean, Carthage became a center for the exchange of handicrafts from the East for raw materials from the West and the South. Carthaginian merchants traded in purple of their own production, ivory and slaves from Sudan, ostrich feather and golden sand from central Africa. In exchange came silver and salted fish from Spain, bread from Sardinia, olive oil and Greek art from Sicily. Carpets, ceramics, enamel and glass beads went from Egypt and Phenicia to Carthage, for which the Carthaginian merchants exchanged valuable raw materials from the natives.

In addition to trade, agriculture played an important role in the economy of the city-state. On the fertile plain of Bagrad lay the large estates of the Carthaginian landowners, served by slaves and the local Libyan population, who were dependent on the serf type. Small free land tenure, apparently, did not play any significant role in Carthage. The work of the Carthaginian Magon on agriculture in 28 books was subsequently translated into Latin by order of the Roman Senate.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. the navigator Gimilkon landed in Britain on the coast of the modern tin-rich Cornwall peninsula. And 30 years later, Hannon, a native of an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships, which had 30,000 men and women. People were planted in different parts of the coast to establish new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and further south along the western coast of Africa, Gannon reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the shores of modern Cameroon.

The entrepreneurial spirit and business acumen of its inhabitants helped Carthage become, admittedly, the richest city in the ancient world. “At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. thanks to technology, navy and trade ... the city has moved to the forefront, "says the book" Carthage ". The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: "Their power in military terms became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian."

Army

The army of Carthage was mainly mercenary, although there was also an urban militia. The basis of the infantry was made up of Spanish, African, Greek, Gallic mercenaries, the Carthaginian aristocracy served in the "sacred detachment" - the heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of the Numidians, considered in antiquity to be the most skillful horsemen, and the Iberians. The Iberians were also considered good warriors - the Balearic slingers and the cetrati (caetrati - correlated with the Greek peltasts) formed light infantry, the scutaties (armed with a spear, dart and bronze armor) - heavy, the Spanish heavy cavalry (armed with swords.) Was also very valuable. The Celtiberian tribes used the Gauls weaponry - long two-edged swords. An important role was also played by elephants, which were kept in number about 300. The "technical" equipment of the army (catapults, ballistae, etc.) was also high. In general, the composition of the Punian army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. The army was headed by a commander-in-chief, elected by a council of elders, but by the end of the state's existence, this election was carried out by the army, which indicates monarchist tendencies.

If necessary, the state could mobilize a fleet of several hundred large five-deck ships, equipped and armed with the latest Hellenistic naval technology and equipped with an experienced crew.

Story

Carthage was founded by immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of the Phoenician king, Dido (daughter of the Tyrian king Kartona). She promised the local tribe to pay a gem for a piece of land bounded by the hide of a bull, but on condition that the choice of location would be hers. After the deal was struck, the colonists chose a convenient location for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single bull's hide. In the first Spanish chronicle “ Estoria de España (Spanish)russian "(Or), prepared by King Alfonso X on the basis of Latin sources, it is reported that the word" carthon"In" that language meant skin (skin), and that is why she named the city Cartago. " In the same book, details of the subsequent colonization are given.

The credibility of the legend is unknown, but it seems unlikely that without the favorable attitude of the aborigines, a handful of settlers could gain a foothold in the territory assigned to it and found a city there. In addition, there is reason to believe that the settlers were representatives of a political party that was not pleasing in their homeland, and they hardly had to hope for the support of the metropolis. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the city was founded, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. The leader of the tribe Maxitan Giarb, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Dido, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarb even captured the city and held it for several years.

The favorable geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the Western Mediterranean (population reached 700,000), to unite around itself the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain, and to conduct extensive conquests and colonization.

VI century BC e.

In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and made an alliance with Tartess. Initially, the Punyans suffered defeats, but Magon I carried out a reform of the army (now mercenaries became the basis of the troops), an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartess was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed.

The main source of prosperity was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was a strict regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. This brought in huge profits, but strongly hampered the development of the subordinate territories and contributed to the growth of separatist sentiments. During the Greco-Persian wars, Carthage was in alliance with Persia, together with the Etruscans, an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Gimer (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main opponents of the Punyans were Syracuse (by 400 BC this state was at the pinnacle of power and sought to open trade in the west, completely captured by Carthage), the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punians.

3rd century BC e.

Today it is a suburb of Tunisia and a tourist pilgrimage site.

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Notes

Bibliography

Sources

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Links

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.

Cities Personalities Language and writing Religion

Protolivians Oldest references Lower Egypt and areas west Antiquity Lower Egypt and areas west Libya (as an area) Inner Libya Numidia Carthage region / Africa Mauretania Mixed population North Africa 1 They also lived in the south of Marmarika and east of Sirtika. 2 The tribe was originally considered Numidian, but later their land ceded to Mauretania.

Parties Related events

Excerpt from Carthage

The princess lay in an armchair, m lle Burien rubbing her whiskey. Princess Marya, supporting her daughter-in-law, with her beautiful tear-stained eyes, was still looking at the door through which Prince Andrew had come out, and baptized him. From the office were heard, like shots, the often repeated angry sounds of the old man blowing his nose. As soon as Prince Andrey left, the door of the study quickly opened and the stern figure of an old man in a white coat peeped out.
- Left? Well, good! He said, looking angrily at the insensitive little princess, shook his head reproachfully and slammed the door.

In October 1805, Russian troops occupied the villages and cities of the Austrian Archduchy, and more new regiments came from Russia and, burdening the inhabitants with a stand, were stationed at the Braunau fortress. In Braunau was the headquarters of the commander-in-chief Kutuzov.
On October 11, 1805, one of the infantry regiments that had just arrived at Brownau, awaiting the inspection of the commander-in-chief, stood half a mile from the city. Despite the non-Russian terrain and setting (orchards, stone fences, tiled roofs, mountains that could be seen in the distance), the non-Russian people, looking at the soldiers with curiosity, the regiment had exactly the same appearance as any Russian regiment, preparing for a review somewhere in the middle of Russia.
In the evening, at the last crossing, an order was received that the commander-in-chief would watch the regiment on the march. Although the words of the order seemed unclear to the regimental commander, the question arose of how to understand the words of the order: in marching uniform or not? the council of battalion commanders decided to present the regiment in full dress on the grounds that it is always better to bow again than not to bow. And the soldiers, after the 30-verst march, did not close their eyes, they repaired and cleaned themselves all night; adjutants and company officers calculated, expelled; and by morning the regiment, instead of the sprawling, disorderly crowd, which it had been on the last passage the day before, represented a slender mass of 2,000 people, each of whom knew his place, his business, and of whom on each button and strap were in place and shone with cleanliness ... Not only was the exterior in good order, but if the commander-in-chief had liked to look under the uniforms, he would have seen an equally clean shirt on each one and in each knapsack he would have found a legalized number of things, "awning and soap," as the soldiers say. There was only one circumstance about which no one could be calm. It was a shoe. More than half of the people had their boots broken. But this shortcoming did not come from the guilt of the regimental commander, since, despite repeated demands, the goods from the Austrian department were not released to him, and the regiment traveled a thousand miles.
The regimental commander was an elderly, sanguine, general with graying eyebrows and sideburns, stout and wide, more from chest to back than from shoulder to shoulder. He was wearing a brand new uniform, with folded folds, and thick gold epaulettes, which seemed to lift his fat shoulders up rather than downwards. The regimental commander looked like a man happily performing one of the most solemn deeds of life. He walked in front of the front and, walking, trembled at every step, slightly bending his back. It was evident that the regimental commander was admiring his regiment, happy with him that all his mental strength was occupied only by the regiment; but, in spite of the fact, his trembling gait seemed to say that, in addition to military interests, the interests of social life and the female sex also occupy a significant place in his soul.
- Well, Father Mikhailo Mitrich, - he turned to one battalion commander (the battalion commander leaned forward smiling; it was obvious that they were happy), - got to the nuts this night. However, it seems, nothing, the regiment is not one of the bad ... Huh?
The battalion commander understood the amused irony and laughed.
- And in Tsaritsyno meadow from the field would not be driven away.
- What? - said the commander.
At that time, two horsemen appeared on the road from the city, along which the makhans were placed. They were an adjutant and a Cossack riding behind.
The adjutant was sent from the main headquarters to confirm to the regimental commander what was said unclear in yesterday's order, namely, that the commander-in-chief wanted to see the regiment completely in the position in which he walked - in greatcoats, in covers and without any preparations.
A member of the Gofkriegsrat from Vienna arrived at Kutuzov the day before, with proposals and demands to go as soon as possible to join the army of Archduke Ferdinand and Mac, and Kutuzov, not considering this combination beneficial, among other evidence in favor of his opinion, intended to show the Austrian general that sad situation , in which troops came from Russia. With this in mind, he wanted to go out to meet the regiment, so that the worse the position of the regiment, the more pleasant it would be for the commander-in-chief. Although the adjutant did not know these details, he conveyed to the regimental commander the commander-in-chief's indispensable demand that the people be in greatcoats and covers, and that otherwise the commander-in-chief would be dissatisfied. Having heard these words, the regimental commander lowered his head, silently lifted his shoulders and spread his arms with a sanguine gesture.
- Have done the business! He said. - So I told you, Mikhailo Mitrich, that on a campaign, so in greatcoats, - he turned with reproach to the battalion commander. - Oh, my God! He added, and stepped forward decisively. - Gentlemen company commanders! He shouted in a voice familiar to command. - Feldwebel! ... Will they come soon? - He turned to the arrived adjutant with an expression of respectful courtesy, apparently related to the person about whom he spoke.
- In an hour, I think.
- Will we have time to change?
“I don’t know, General ...
The regimental commander, himself going up to the ranks, ordered to change clothes again in an overcoat. The company commanders scattered among the companies, the sergeant-major fussed about (the overcoats were not quite in good working order) and at the same instant they swayed, stretched out and the previously regular, silent quadrangles began to hum. Soldiers ran and ran from all sides, threw them from behind with their shoulders, dragged their knapsacks over their heads, took off their greatcoats and, raising their hands high, pulled them into their sleeves.
In half an hour, everything returned to its previous order, only the quadrangles turned gray from black. The regimental commander, again with a trembling gait, stepped forward of the regiment and looked at it from afar.
- What else is that? What's this! He shouted, stopping. - Commander of the 3rd company! ..
- The commander of the 3rd company to the general! the commander to the general, the 3rd company to the commander! ... - voices were heard in the ranks, and the adjutant ran to find the lingering officer.
When the sounds of zealous voices, distorting, shouting already "General in the 3rd company", reached their destination, the required officer showed up from behind the company and, although the man was already elderly and had no habit of running, clinging awkwardly to his socks, trotted towards the general. The captain's face expressed the concern of a schoolboy who was being told to say a lesson he had not learned. There were spots on the red (obviously from intemperance) nose, and the mouth could not find a position. The regimental commander examined the captain from head to toe, while he came up breathlessly, restraining his step as he approached.
- You will soon dress people in sundresses! What's this? - shouted the regimental commander, extending his lower jaw and pointing in the ranks of the 3rd company at a soldier in an overcoat of the color of factory cloth, which differed from other overcoats. - Where were you yourself? The commander-in-chief is expected, and you are leaving your place? Huh? ... I will teach you how to dress people in Cossacks for the show! ... Huh? ...
The company commander, without taking his eyes off the commander, more and more pressed his two fingers to the visor, as if in this one pressing he now saw his salvation.
- Well, why are you silent? Who is there dressed up as a Hungarian? - the regimental commander joked strictly.
- Your Excellency…
- Well, what about your Excellency? Your Excellency! Your Excellency! No one knows what your Excellency is.
- Your Excellency, this is Dolokhov, demoted ... - said the captain quietly.
- Is he a field marshal, or what, demoted or a soldier? A soldier should be dressed like everyone else, in uniform.
- Your Excellency, you yourself allowed him to march.
- Allowed? Allowed? You are always like this, young people, - said the regimental commander, cooling down a little. - Allowed? Tell you something, and you and ... - The regimental commander paused. - You say something, and you and ... - What? He said, irritated again. - Please, dress people decently ...
And the regimental commander, looking back at the adjutant, with his startling gait went to the regiment. It was evident that he himself liked his irritation, and that, walking around the shelf, he wanted to find another excuse for his anger. Cutting off one officer for an uncleaned sign, another for an incorrect row, he approached the 3rd company.
- Kaaak standing? Where is the leg? Where is the leg? - shouted the regimental commander with an expression of suffering in his voice, still a man about five before reaching Dolokhov, dressed in a bluish greatcoat.
Dolokhov slowly straightened his bent leg and straight, with his bright and impudent gaze, looked into the general's face.
- Why a blue overcoat? Down with ... Feldwebel! Dress him up ... rubbish ... - He did not have time to finish.
“General, I am obliged to obey orders, but I am not obliged to endure…” Dolokhov said hastily.
- Do not talk at the front! ... Do not talk, do not talk! ...
“I don’t have to endure insults,” Dolokhov said loudly, sonorously.
The general and the soldier's eyes met. The general fell silent, angrily pulling down the tight scarf.
“Please change your clothes, please,” he said, walking away.

- Rides! - shouted at this time the mahal.
The regimental commander blushed, ran up to the horse, took hold of the stirrup with trembling hands, threw his body over, recovered, took out his sword and, with a happy, decisive face, opening his mouth to one side, prepared to shout. The regiment perked up like a recovering bird and froze.
- Smir r r r na! - shouted the regimental commander in a tremendous soul voice, joyful for himself, strict in relation to the regiment and friendly in relation to the approaching chief.
On a wide, tree-lined, large, roadless road, a tall blue Viennese carriage rode at a rapid trot, slightly rattling with springs. A retinue and a convoy of croats galloped behind the carriage. Near Kutuzov sat an Austrian general in a strange white uniform among black Russians. The carriage stopped at the regiment. Kutuzov and the Austrian general were quietly talking about something, and Kutuzov smiled slightly, while, stepping heavily, he lowered his foot from the footstep, as if there weren't these 2,000 people who were not looking at him and the regimental commander ...
There was a cry of command, again the ringing regiment trembled, making a guard. In the dead silence, the commander-in-chief's faint voice was heard. The regiment barked: "We wish you good health, your fortune!" And again everything froze. At first Kutuzov stood in one place while the regiment moved; then Kutuzov, next to the white general, on foot, accompanied by his retinue, began to walk through the rows.
From the way the regimental commander saluted the commander-in-chief, glaring at him, stretching himself out and stealing up, how he leaned forward followed the generals through the ranks, barely holding the trembling movement, how he jumped up with every word and movement of the commander-in-chief, it was clear that he was fulfilling his duties a subordinate with even greater pleasure than the duties of a boss. The regiment, thanks to the severity and diligence of the regimental commander, was in excellent condition compared to others who came at the same time to Brownau. There were only 217 retarded and sick people. And everything was fine, except for the shoes.
Kutuzov walked through the ranks, occasionally stopping and speaking a few kind words to the officers he knew from the Turkish war, and sometimes to the soldiers. Looking at the shoes, he several times sadly shook his head and pointed at them to the Austrian general with such an expression that, as it were, he did not reproach anyone for this, but he could not help but see how bad it was. The regimental commander ran ahead each time, fearing to miss the word of the commander-in-chief about the regiment. Behind Kutuzov, at such a distance that every weakly spoken word could be heard, walked about 20 of his suite. The gentlemen of the suite talked to each other and sometimes laughed. The handsome adjutant was closest to the commander-in-chief. It was Prince Bolkonsky. Next to him walked his comrade Nesvitsky, a high staff officer, extremely fat, with a kind and smiling handsome face and moist eyes; Nesvitsky could hardly restrain himself from laughing, aroused by the blackish hussar officer walking beside him. The hussar officer, without smiling, without changing the expression of his stopped eyes, looked with a serious face at the back of the regimental commander and mimicked his every movement. Every time the regimental commander shuddered and bent forward, in exactly the same way, the hussar officer shuddered and bent forward. Nesvitsky laughed and pushed others to look at the amusing man.
Kutuzov walked slowly and listlessly past a thousand eyes that rolled out of their orbits, watching the chief. After catching up with the 3rd company, he suddenly stopped. The retinue, not anticipating this stop, involuntarily moved towards him.
- Ah, Timokhin! - said the commander-in-chief, recognizing the captain with a red nose, injured for a blue overcoat.
It seemed that it was impossible to stretch out more than Timokhin stretched out, while the regimental commander made a remark to him. But at that moment of the commander-in-chief's address to him, the captain stretched out so that, it seemed, if the commander-in-chief looked at him for a few more time, the captain would not have resisted; and therefore Kutuzov, apparently understanding his position and wishing, on the contrary, every good to the captain, hastily turned away. A barely perceptible smile ran across Kutuzov's plump face, disfigured by a wound.
“Another Izmailovsky comrade,” he said. - Brave officer! Are you satisfied with him? - Kutuzov asked the regimental commander.
And the regimental commander, reflected as in a mirror, invisibly to himself, in a hussar officer, shuddered, walked forward and answered:
“I am very pleased, Your Excellency.
“We are all not without weaknesses,” said Kutuzov, smiling and moving away from him. - He had a commitment to Bacchus.
The regimental commander was scared if he was to blame for this, and did not answer. The officer at that moment noticed the face of the captain with a red nose and a tucked up belly and so similarly mimicked his face and posture that Nesvitsky could not help laughing.
Kutuzov turned around. It was evident that the officer could control his face as he wanted: the minute Kutuzov turned around, the officer managed to make a grimace, and then take on the most serious, respectful and innocent expression.
The third company was the last, and Kutuzov pondered, apparently remembering something. Prince Andrew stepped out of the suite and said softly in French:
- You ordered to remind about the demoted Dolokhov in this regiment.
- Where is Dolokhov? - asked Kutuzov.
Dolokhov, already dressed in a gray soldier's overcoat, did not wait to be summoned. The slender figure of a blond soldier with clear blue eyes emerged from the front. He went up to the commander-in-chief and made a guard.
- A claim? - Frowning slightly, asked Kutuzov.
“This is Dolokhov,” said Prince Andrey.
- A! - said Kutuzov. “I hope this lesson will correct you, serve well. The sovereign is merciful. And I will not forget you if you deserve it.
Blue, clear eyes looked at the commander-in-chief as boldly as at the regimental commander, as if by their expression were tearing the veil of convention that separated the commander-in-chief from the soldier so far.
“One thing I ask, your Excellency,” he said in his sonorous, firm, unhurried voice. “I ask you to give me a chance to make amends for my guilt and prove my loyalty to the Emperor and Russia.
Kutuzov turned away. His face flashed the same smile of eyes as when he turned away from Captain Timokhin. He turned away and frowned, as if he wanted to express by this that everything that Dolokhov said to him, and everything that he could tell him, he has long, long known that all this has already bored him and that all this is not at all what is needed ... He turned away and went to the wheelchair.
The regiment sorted out in companies and went to the assigned apartments not far from Braunau, where he hoped to put on shoes, dress and rest after difficult transitions.
“You don’t pretend to me, Prokhor Ignatyich? - Said the regimental commander, bypassing the 3rd company moving to the place and approaching the captain Timokhin who was walking in front of it. The regimental commander's face expressed uncontrollable joy after the happily served review. - The tsarist service ... you can't ... another time in the front you will cut off ... I will apologize first, you know me ... Thank you very much! And he held out his hand to the company commander.
- Have mercy, General, but dare I! - answered the captain, blushing his nose, smiling and revealing with a smile the lack of two front teeth, knocked out by the butt under Ishmael.
- Yes, tell Mr. Dolokhov that I will not forget him, so that he is calm. Yes, please tell me, I still wanted to ask, what is he, how is he behaving? And that's it ...
- He's very good in service, your Excellency ... but the karakhter ... - Timokhin said.
- And what, what character? The regimental commander asked.
- He finds, your excellency, for days, - said the captain, - that he is smart, and learned, and kind. And then the beast. In Poland he killed a Jew, if you please know ...
- Well, yes, well, yes, - said the regimental commander, - we must all feel sorry for the young man in misfortune. After all, great connections ... So you are that ...
“Yes, your Excellency,” said Timokhin, making him feel with a smile that he understands the boss's wishes.
- Yes Yes.
The regimental commander found Dolokhov in the ranks and held the horse back.
- Before the first case - epaulettes, - he told him.
Dolokhov looked around, said nothing and did not change the expression of his mockingly smiling mouth.
- Well, that's good, - continued the regimental commander. “People have a glass of vodka from me,” he added so that the soldiers could hear. - Thank you all! Thank God! - And he, having overtaken the company, drove up to another.
- Well, he's really a good man; you can serve with him, ”Timokhin said to the subaltern to the officer who was walking beside him.
- One word, red! ... (the regimental commander was nicknamed the king of hearts) - the subaltern officer said laughing.
The happy mood of the authorities after the review passed on to the soldiers. The company went on merrily. Soldiers' voices spoke from all sides.
- How did they say, Kutuzov crooked, about one eye?
- And then no! All the curve.
“Don't… brother, you’re bigger than your eyes. Boots and rolls - I looked around ...
- How he, my brother, will look at my feet ... well! I think ...
- And then the other Austrian, with him was, as if smeared with chalk. Like flour, white. I tea, they clean the ammunition!
“What, Fedeshaw!… Did he say that when the guards began, were you standing closer?” They said everything, Bunaparte himself stands in Brunov.
- Bunaparte is worth it! you lie, you fool! What he doesn't know! Now the Prussian is revolting. The Austrian, therefore, pacifies him. As he reconciles, then the war will open with Bunapart. And that, he says, is in Brunov Bunaparte! Then it is clear that he is a fool. Listen more.
- See the devil's lodgers! The fifth company, look, is already turning into the village, they will cook porridge, and we will not reach the place yet.
- Give me a crouton, devil.
- Did you give tobacco yesterday? That's that, brother. Well, on, God be with you.
- If only we made a halt, otherwise we won't eat another five versts.
- It was then pleasant how the Germans gave us the carriages. You go, know: important!
- And here, brother, the people went completely wild. Everything there seemed to be a Pole, everything was of the Russian crown; but today, brother, a solid German has gone.
- Songbooks forward! The captain shouted.
And twenty people ran out in front of the company from different rows. The drummer sang turned around to face the songwriters, and, waving his hand, began to draw out a drawn-out soldier's song, which began: "Isn't it dawn, the sun was busy ..." and ended with the words: "Then, brothers, there will be glory to us with Kamensky father ..." This song was folded in Turkey and was sung now in Austria, only with the change that in place of the "Kamensky father" the words were inserted: "Kutuzov's father."
Tearing off these last words in a soldier's manner and waving his hands as if he were throwing something on the ground, the drummer, a dry and handsome soldier of about forty years old, sternly glanced at the songwriters and closed his eyes. Then, making sure that all eyes were fixed on him, he seemed to carefully raise some invisible, precious thing over his head with both hands, held it like that for several seconds and suddenly desperately threw it away:
Oh, you, my canopy, canopy!
"My new canopy ...", picked up twenty voices, and the spoon-maker, despite the weight of the ammunition, briskly jumped forward and went backwards in front of the company, moving his shoulders and threatening someone with spoons. The soldiers, swinging their arms to the beat of the song, walked with a spacious step, involuntarily falling into the leg. Behind the company came the sound of wheels, the crunching of springs and the stamping of horses.
Kutuzov with his retinue was returning to the city. The commander-in-chief gave a sign that the people should continue to march at ease, and on his face and on all the faces of his retinue, pleasure was expressed at the sound of the song, at the sight of a dancing soldier and merrily and briskly walking company soldiers. In the second row, from the right flank, from which the carriage overtook the companies, the blue-eyed soldier Dolokhov involuntarily caught the eye, who walked especially briskly and gracefully to the beat of the song and looked at the faces of those passing by with such an expression as if he pitied everyone who did not go at this time with the company. A hussar cornet from Kutuzov's retinue, mimicking the regimental commander, left the carriage and drove up to Dolokhov.
Hussar cornet Zherkov at one time in St. Petersburg belonged to that violent society, which was led by Dolokhov. Abroad Zherkov met Dolokhov as a soldier, but did not consider it necessary to recognize him. Now, after Kutuzov's conversation with the demoted one, he, with the joy of an old friend, turned to him:
- Friend of heart, how are you? - he said at the sound of the song, even the step of his horse with the step of the company.
- I am like? - answered Dolokhov coldly, - as you can see.
The lively song attached particular importance to the tone of cheeky gaiety with which Zherkov spoke, and the deliberate coldness of Dolokhov's answers.
- Well, how are you getting along with your superiors? Zherkov asked.
- Nothing, good people. How did you get into the headquarters?
- seconded, on duty.
They were silent.
"Letting the falcon out of the right sleeve," the song said, involuntarily arousing a cheerful, cheerful feeling. Their conversation would probably have been different if they had not spoken at the sound of a song.
- Is it true, the Austrians were beaten? Dolokhov asked.
- And the devil knows them, they say.
- I'm glad, - Dolokhov answered shortly and clearly, as the song demanded.
- Well, come to us when in the evening, you will lay the Pharaoh, - said Zherkov.
- Or have you got a lot of money?
- Come.
- You can't. Zarok gave it. I don’t drink or play until it’s done.
- Well, before the first case ...
- It will be seen there.
They were silent again.
- You come in, if you need anything, everyone in the headquarters will help ... - said Zherkov.
Dolokhov chuckled.
“You better not worry. I will not ask what I need, I will take it myself.
- Well, I am so ...
- Well, I do.
- Goodbye.
- Be healthy…
... and high and far,
On the home side ...
Zherkov touched the horse with his spurs, which three times, hot, kicked him, not knowing where to start, coped and galloped, overtaking the company and overtaking the carriage, also in time to the song.

Returning from the inspection, Kutuzov, accompanied by the Austrian general, went into his office and, having called the adjutant, ordered to submit to himself some papers related to the state of the arriving troops, and letters received from Archduke Ferdinand, who commanded the advanced army. Prince Andrey Bolkonsky entered the commander-in-chief's office with the required papers. In front of the plan spread out on the table sat Kutuzov and an Austrian member of the Hofkrigsrat.
"Ah ..." said Kutuzov, looking back at Bolkonsky, as if by this word inviting the adjutant to wait, and continued the conversation that had begun in French.
“I’m only saying one thing, General,” said Kutuzov with a pleasant grace of expression and intonation that made him listen attentively to every leisurely spoken word. It was evident that Kutuzov himself was listening to himself with pleasure. - I only say one thing, General, that if the matter depended on my personal desire, then the will of His Majesty Emperor Franz would have been fulfilled long ago. I would have joined the Archduke long ago. And believe me in my honor that for me personally to transfer the higher command of the army to a more knowledgeable and skillful general, which Austria is so abundant, and to give up all this heavy responsibility for me personally would be a joy. But circumstances are stronger than we are, General.
And Kutuzov smiled with such an expression as if he were saying: “You have every right not to believe me, and even I do not care whether you believe me or not, but you have no reason to tell me this. And that's the whole point. "
The Austrian general looked displeased, but he could not answer Kutuzov in the same tone.
“On the contrary,” he said in a grumpy and angry tone that contradicted the flattering meaning of the words spoken, “on the contrary, your Excellency's participation in a common cause is highly valued by His Majesty; but we believe that a real slowdown deprives the glorious Russian troops and their commanders-in-chief of those laurels that they are used to reaping in battles, - he finished the apparently prepared sentence.
Kutuzov bowed without changing his smile.
- And I am so convinced, and based on the last letter that His Highness Archduke Ferdinand honored me with, I suppose that the Austrian troops, under the command of such a skillful assistant as General Mac, have now won a decisive victory and no longer need our help, - said Kutuzov.
The general frowned. Although there was no positive news of the defeat of the Austrians, there were too many circumstances to confirm the general unfavorable rumors; and therefore the assumption of Kutuzov about the victory of the Austrians was very similar to a mockery. But Kutuzov smiled meekly, all with the same expression that said that he had the right to assume this. Indeed, the last letter he received from Mac's army informed him of the victory and the most advantageous strategic position of the army.
“Give me this letter here,” said Kutuzov, addressing Prince Andrey. - If you please, see. - And Kutuzov, with a mocking smile at the ends of his lips, read in German to the Austrian general the following passage from the letter of Archduke Ferdinand: “Wir haben vollkommen zusammengehaltene Krafte, nahe an 70,000 Mann, um den Feind, wenn er den Lech passirte, angreifen und schl konnen. Wir konnen, da wir Meister von Ulm sind, den Vortheil, auch von beiden Uferien der Donau Meister zu bleiben, nicht verlieren; mithin auch jeden Augenblick, wenn der Feind den Lech nicht passirte, die Donau ubersetzen, uns auf seine Communikations Linie werfen, die Donau unterhalb repassiren und dem Feinde, wenn er sich gegen unsere treue Allirte mit ganzer Macht, wenden wollte Wir werden auf solche Weise den Zeitpunkt, wo die Kaiserlich Ruseische Armee ausgerustet sein wird, muthig entgegenharren, und sodann leicht gemeinschaftlich die Moglichkeit finden, dem Feinde das Schicksal zuzubereiten. So erdient [We have a fully concentrated force, about 70,000 people, so that we can attack and defeat the enemy in the event of a crossing over Leh. Since we already own Ulm, we can retain the benefit of commanding both banks of the Danube, therefore, every minute, if the enemy does not cross Lech, cross the Danube, rush to its communication line, below cross the Danube and the enemy, if he decides to turn all his power on our faithful allies, not to allow his intention to be fulfilled. Thus, we will cheerfully await the time when the imperial Russian army is completely ready, and then together we will easily find an opportunity to prepare the enemy the fate he deserves. "]
Kutuzov sighed heavily, having finished this period, and looked attentively and affectionately at the member of the Hofkrigsrat.
“But you know, Your Excellency, a wise rule that presupposes the worst,” said the Austrian general, apparently wanting to end the jokes and get down to business.
He involuntarily glanced back at the adjutant.
“Excuse me, General,” Kutuzov interrupted him and also turned to Prince Andrey. - Here's what, my dear, you take all the reports from our scouts at Kozlovsky. Here are two letters from Count Nostitz, here is a letter from His Highness the Archduke Ferdinand, here's another, ”he said, handing him several papers. - And out of all this, neatly, in French, compose a memorandum, a note, for the appearance of all the news that we had about the actions of the Austrian army. Well, then, and introduce it to His Excellency.
Prince Andrey bowed his head as a sign that he understood from the first words not only what was said, but also what Kutuzov would like to tell him. He collected the papers, and, giving a general bow, quietly walking on the carpet, went out into the waiting room.
Despite the fact that not much time has passed since Prince Andrei left Russia, he has changed a lot during this time. In the expression on his face, in his movements, in his gait, there was almost no sign of the old pretense, weariness and laziness; he had the air of a man who has no time to think about the impression he makes on others, and is busy with a pleasant and interesting business. His face expressed more satisfaction with himself and those around him; his smile and look were more cheerful and attractive.
Kutuzov, whom he caught up with back in Poland, received him very kindly, promised him not to forget him, distinguished him from other adjutants, took him with him to Vienna and gave more serious assignments. From Vienna, Kutuzov wrote to his old friend, the father of Prince Andrei:
“Your son,” he wrote, “gives me hope to be an officer who is one of the best in his occupations, firmness and diligence. I consider myself lucky to have such a subordinate at hand. "
At Kutuzov's headquarters, between his comrades and colleagues, and in the army in general, Prince Andrey, as well as in Petersburg society, had two completely opposite reputations.
Some, a smaller part, recognized Prince Andrew as something special from themselves and from all other people, expected great success from him, listened to him, admired him and imitated him; and with these people Prince Andrew was simple and pleasant. Others, the majority, did not like Prince Andrew, considered him a pouty, cold and unpleasant person. But with these people, Prince Andrew knew how to position himself in such a way that he was respected and even feared.
Leaving Kutuzov's office in the waiting room, Prince Andrey with the papers went up to his comrade, the adjutant on duty Kozlovsky, who was sitting by the window with a book.
- Well, what, prince? Kozlovsky asked.
- Ordered to draw up a note why we are not going forward.
- And why?
Prince Andrew shrugged his shoulders.
- No word from Mac? Kozlovsky asked.
- Not.
- If it were true that he was broken, then the news would come.
“Probably,” said Prince Andrey and went to the exit door; but at the same time, a tall, apparently newcomer, Austrian general in a frock coat, with a head tied with a black shawl and with the Order of Maria Theresa around his neck, quickly entered the waiting room, slamming the door towards him. Prince Andrew stopped.
- General in chief Kutuzov? - the visiting general quickly said with a sharp German reprimand, looking back at both sides and without stopping walking to the office door.
“The general in chief is busy,” said Kozlovsky, hurrying up to the unknown general and blocking his way from the door. - How would you like to report?
The unknown general looked down contemptuously from top to bottom at the short Kozlovsky, as if surprised that they might not know him.
“General in chief is busy,” Kozlovsky repeated calmly.
The general's face frowned, his lips twitched and trembled. He took out a notebook, quickly drew something with a pencil, tore out a piece of paper, gave it away, walked quickly to the window, threw his body on a chair and looked around at the people in the room, as if asking: why are they looking at him? Then the general raised his head, stretched out his neck, as if intending to say something, but immediately, as if casually beginning to hum to himself, made a strange sound, which immediately stopped. The office door opened, and Kutuzov appeared on the threshold. The general with his head tied, as if fleeing from danger, bending down, with large, quick steps of thin legs approached Kutuzov.

Carthage arose several centuries earlier than the small Gallic settlement of Lutetia, which later became Paris. It already existed at the time when the Etruscans appeared in the north of the Apennine Peninsula - teachers of the Romans in art, navigation and crafts. Carthage was already a city when a furrow was made around the Palatine Hill with a bronze plow, thereby completing the ritual of founding the Eternal City.

Like the beginning of any of the cities whose history goes back centuries, the founding of Carthage is also associated with legend. 814 BC e. - the ships of the Phoenician queen Elissa moored near Utica, a Phoenician settlement in North Africa.

They were met by the leader of the nearby Berber tribes. The local population had no desire to let a whole detachment arriving from overseas into a permanent settlement. However, to Elissa's request to allow them to settle there, the leader answered with consent. But with one condition: the territory that the aliens can occupy must be covered with the skin of only one bull.

The Phoenician queen was not at all embarrassed and commanded her people to cut this skin into thin strips, which were then laid out on the ground in a closed line - tip to tip. As a result, a rather large area appeared, which was enough for the foundation of a whole settlement, named Birsa - "Skin". The Phoenicians themselves called it "Karthadasht -" New City "," New Capital ". After that, this name was transformed into Carthage, Cartagena, in Russian it sounds like Carthage.

After a brilliant operation with the skin of a bull, the Phoenician queen took another heroic step. Then the leader of one of the local tribes wooed her to strengthen the alliance with the alien Phoenicians. After Carthage grew up and began to gain respect in the area. But Elissa refused female happiness, chose a different fate. In the name of establishing a new city-state, in the name of raising the Phoenician people and for the gods to consecrate Carthage with their attention and strengthen the royal power, the queen ordered to make a big fire. For the gods, as she said, ordered her to perform the rite of sacrifice ...

And when a huge fire broke out, Elissa threw herself into the hot flame. The ashes of the first queen - the founder of Carthage - lay in the ground, on which the walls of a powerful state soon rose, which survived centuries of prosperity and died, like the Phoenician queen Elissa, in a fiery agony.

This legend has no scientific confirmation yet, and the most ancient finds, which were obtained as a result of archaeological excavations, date back to the 7th century BC. e.

The Phoenicians brought knowledge, craft traditions, a higher level of culture to these lands and quickly established themselves as skilled and skilled workers. Along with the Egyptians, they mastered the production of glass, succeeded in weaving and pottery, as well as in leather dressing, patterned embroidery, and the manufacture of items from bronze and silver. Their products were prized all over the Mediterranean. The economic life of Carthage was built, as a rule, on trade, agriculture and fishing. It was in those days that olive groves and orchards were planted along the shores of present-day Tunisia, and the plains were plowed up. Even the Romans marveled at the agrarian knowledge of the Carthaginians.

The industrious and skillful inhabitants of Carthage dug artesian wells, built dams and stone water tanks, cultivated wheat, cultivated gardens and vineyards, erected multi-storey buildings, invented various mechanisms, watched the stars, wrote books ...

Their glass was known throughout the ancient world, perhaps even more so than Venetian glass in the Middle Ages. The colorful purple fabrics of the Carthaginians, the secrets of which were carefully hidden, were incredibly prized.

The cultural impact of the Phoenicians was also of great importance. They invented the alphabet - the same alphabet of 22 letters, which served as the basis for the writing of many peoples: for the Greek writing, and for Latin, and for our writing.

Already 200 years after the city was founded, the Carthaginian state becomes prosperous and powerful. The Carthaginians founded trading posts in the Balearic Islands, they captured Corsica, and eventually began to take control of Sardinia. By the 5th century BC. e. Carthage has already established itself as one of the largest empires in the Mediterranean. This empire covered a significant territory of the present Maghreb, had its possessions in Spain and Sicily; the fleet of Carthage through Gibraltar began to enter the Atlantic Ocean, reaching England, Ireland and even the shores of Cameroon.

He had no equal in the entire Mediterranean. Polybius wrote that the Carthaginian galleys were built in such a way “that they could move in any direction with the greatest ease ... If the enemy, fiercely attacking, pressed such ships, they retreated without endangering themselves: after all, light ships are not afraid of the open sea. If the enemy persisted in pursuit, the galleys turned around and, maneuvering in front of the formation of enemy ships or enveloping it from the flanks, again and again went to the ram. Under the protection of such galleys, heavily laden Carthaginian sailing ships could sail safely.

Everything was going well for the city. At that time, the influence of Greece, the constant enemy of Carthage, was greatly diminished. The rulers of the city supported their power by an alliance with the Etruscans: this alliance was a kind of shield, which blocked the Greeks' way to the trade oases of the Mediterranean. In the east, things were also going well for Carthage, but at that time Rome turned into a strong Mediterranean power.

It is known how the rivalry between Carthage and Rome ended. The sworn enemy of the famous city, Marcus Porcius Cato, at the end of every speech in the Roman Senate, no matter what was said, repeated: "But all the same, I believe that!"

Cato himself visited Carthage as part of the Roman embassy at the end of the 2nd century BC. e. A noisy, prosperous city appeared before him. Major trade deals were concluded there, coins of different states settled in the chests of the exchangers, the mines regularly supplied silver, copper and lead, ships left the stocks.

Cato also visited the provinces, where he was able to see lush fields, lush vineyards, orchards and olive groves. The estates of the Carthaginian nobility were in no way inferior to the Roman ones, and sometimes even surpassed them in luxury and splendor of decoration.

The senator returned to Rome in the darkest mood. As he set out on his journey, he hoped to see signs of the decline of Carthage, the eternal and nemesis of Rome. For more than a century, there has been a struggle between the two most powerful powers of the Mediterranean for the possession of colonies, convenient harbors, for domination of the sea.

This struggle went on with varying success, but the Romans were able to drive out the Carthaginians from Sicily and Andalusia forever. As a result of the African victories of Emilian Scipio, Carthage paid Rome an indemnity of 10 thousand talents, gave his entire fleet, war elephants and all the Numidian lands. Such crushing defeats should have bled the state, but Carthage was reborn and got stronger, which means that it will again pose a threat to Rome ...

So the senator thought, and only dreams of impending vengeance dispersed his gloomy thoughts.

For three years the legions of Emilian Scipio besieged Carthage, and no matter how desperately the inhabitants resisted, they could not block the path of the Roman army. The battle for the city lasted six days, and then it was taken by storm. For 10 days Carthage was given over to plunder, and then razed to the ground. Heavy Roman plows plowed what was left of its streets and squares.

They threw salt into the ground so that the Carthaginian fields and gardens would no longer bear fruit. The surviving inhabitants, 55 thousand people, were sold into slavery. According to legend, Emilian Scipio, whose troops took Carthage by storm, wept as he watched the capital of a mighty state die.

The winners took away gold, silver, jewelry, ivory, carpets - everything that had accumulated over the centuries in temples, sanctuaries, palaces and homes. Almost all books and chronicles were destroyed in the fires. The Romans transferred the famous library of Carthage to their allies - the Numidian princes, and since that time it has disappeared without a trace. Only a treatise on agriculture by the Carthaginian Magon has survived.

But the greedy robbers, who ravaged the city and razed it to the ground, did not rest on this. It seemed to them that the Carthaginians, whose wealth was legendary, had hidden their jewels before the last battle. And for many more years, treasure seekers scoured the dead city.

24 years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans began to rebuild a new city in its place according to their own models - with wide streets and squares, with white-stone palaces, temples and public buildings. Everything that could somehow survive the defeat of Carthage was now used in the construction of a new city, which was being revived in the Roman style.

In less than a few decades, Carthage, which had risen from the ashes, turned in beauty and importance into the second city of the state. All historians who described Carthage during the Roman period spoke of it as a city in which "luxury and pleasure reign".

But Roman rule was not eternal either. By the middle of the 5th century, the city fell under the rule of Byzantium, and after a century and a half the first military units of the Arabs came here. In retaliation, the Byzantines returned the city to themselves, but only for three years, and then it remained forever in the hands of the new conquerors.

The Berber tribes greeted the arrival of the Arabs calmly and did not interfere with the spread of Islam. Arab schools were opened in all cities and even small settlements, literature, medicine, theology, astronomy, architecture, folk crafts began to develop ...

During the Arab rule, when dynasties at war with each other were replaced very often, Carthage is relegated to the background. Once again destroyed, it could no longer rise, turning into a symbol of majestic immortality. The people and the ruthless time left nothing from the former greatness of Carthage - a city that ruled over half of the ancient world. Neither the German lighthouse, nor the stone from the fortress wall, nor the temple of the god Eshmun, on whose steps the defenders of the great ancient city fought to the last.

Now on the site of the legendary city - a quiet suburb of Tunisia. A small peninsula cuts into the horseshoe-shaped harbor of the former military fort. Here you can see the fragments of columns and blocks of yellow stone - all that remains of the palace of the admiral of the Carthaginian fleet. Historians believe that the palace was built so that the admiral could always see the ships he commanded. And yet only a pile of stones (presumably from the acropolis) and the foundation of the temple of the gods Tanit and Baal testify that Carthage was in fact a real place on earth. And turn the wheel of history differently, Carthage instead of Rome could become the ruler of the ancient world.

Since the middle of the twentieth century, excavations have been conducted there, and it turned out that not far from Birsa, a whole quarter of Carthage was preserved under a layer of ash. To this day, all our knowledge of the great city is mostly evidence of its enemies. And therefore the testimonies of Carthage itself are now becoming increasingly important. Tourists from all over the world come here to stay on this ancient land and feel its great past. Carthage is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, and therefore it must be preserved ...

Existed in those places 2500 years ago.

Ancient Carthage is the ruins of Roman buildings that rose above Cartaga in the Punic or Phoenician era.

"Carthage was at one time the richest city in the world. Agriculture, which underlay its prosperity, was considered an honorable occupation..

The turbulent history of Carthage - now a clean and prosperous suburb located 20 kilometers from Tunisia - began in 814 BC. Queen Dido or Elissa, pursued by her brother, the ruler of the Phoenician city of Tire Pygmalion, landed on the northern coast of Tunisia after a long wandering. Dido asked the local king to grant her shelter and to allow her to build a house. The king never wanted to agree. Then Dido asked to give her as much land as the skin of a bull could cover. The king was in good spirits and was delighted with the new entertainment. Dido ordered the biggest bull to be slaughtered, and then cut its skin into very narrow strips, and surrounded a large area with them. According to the legend of the founding of the city, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as a bull's hide, took possession of a large plot by cutting the hide into narrow belts. That is why the citadel placed on this place bore the name Birsa (which means "skin").

So, according to legend, Carthage was founded.
CHAPTER 1

HISTORY OF ANCIENT CARPHAGEN

1.1 ANCIENT CARPHAGENE.

Carthage (which means "new city" in Phoenician) was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire. The Romans called him Carthago, the Greeks - Carhedon.

After the fall of Phoenician influence in the Western Mediterranean, Carthage reassigns the former Phoenician colonies. By the 3rd century BC. e. he becomes the largest state in the west of the Mediterranean, subjugating Southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica.

The city was surrounded by a 34-kilometer strip of walls nine meters thick and fifteen meters high. Inside the walls there were several hundred fighting elephants in corrals, forage depots; there were stables for four thousand horses and barracks for 20 thousand infantrymen. Our minds have a hard time comprehending what expenditure of energy and human lives it took the Romans to crush these fiercely defended Cyclopean structures.

Located on an easily guarded peninsula with an unlimited supply of fish, ancient Carthage flourished as one of the richest cities in the world at that time. However, the wealth of Carthage haunted the city's longtime rivals. And Rome bided its time - in 146 BC. after more than a century of fighting, Rome destroyed the city.

In IV BC. e. the city of Carthage expanded greatly and began to be populated by merchants, artisans and landowners. A large residential area of \u200b\u200bMegara, built up with multi-storey buildings, arose near Birsa. Carthage developed as a large slave-owning state with many colonies. The merciless exploitation of the enslaved peoples and the slave trade provided a huge influx of wealth. In the ancient Roman annals, the Carthaginians are called Punas and characterize them as cruel and treacherous enemies who know no mercy for the vanquished. As a military-commercial and slave-owning power, Carthage constantly needed a navy and an army. Carthage had a first-class fleet and army, which held the peoples subject to Carthage in unconditional obedience. The army was recruited from among foreign mercenaries. Out of everyoh nationalities formed a special type of troops. For example, the Libyans made up the infantry, the Numidians - the cavalry. The inhabitants of the Balearic Islands supplied detachments of slingers - stone throwers to the Carthaginian army. The multi-tribal, multilingual Carthaginian army was ruled by local leaders, who were commanded by the Carthaginian generals and officers. The Puni Carthaginians did not carry out ordinary military service. In the Carthaginian army there were permanent units armed with stone throwers and ramming machines to take fortresses. Special units of the army had war elephants, which were used to break through enemy ranks and destroy enemy manpower during battle.

The navy was even more important. In navigation, the Carthaginians used the centuries-old experience of the Phoenicians. They were the first to start building large five-deck ships - penters, easily overtaking and destroying Roman and Greek triremes and galleys in battle. The flagship ships of the Carthaginians were seven-decked and were called hepters.

The National Museum of Carthage, located on the hill of Beersa, where the fortress used to be located, is a great place to start exploring these places. The museum presents an extensive collection of archaeological finds - ceramics, oil lamps, utensils, mosaics - reflecting the peculiarities of the Carthaginian life more than a millennium ago.

In the ruins of Carthage, huge reservoirs have been preserved. A group of such tanks is located near the suburbs of Mars, and has more than 25 containers. Another group is located in the suburb of Malga. There were at least 40 containers here. Not far from them are the ruins of a large aqueduct that supplied water to Carthage from a ridge in the mountains of the Tunisian Atlas. The aqueduct has a total length of 132 km. The water was supplied by gravity, passing through several large valleys, where the aqueduct had a height of more than 20 m. This aqueduct was founded by the Carthaginians, rebuilt in 136 AD. e. Romans (under Emperor Hadrian, 117 - 138). Under Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211) it was rebuilt again. The aqueduct was destroyed and rebuilt by vandals. The ruins of the aqueduct are still striking in their grandiose size. It was the longest aqueduct in ancient times. The second longest aqueduct is located near Rome.
At the very top of the Carthage Upland, in the area of \u200b\u200bthe village of Sidi-Bou-Said, at a considerable distance from Birsa, there are ruins of early Christian religious buildings. This is the Basilica of Damos el Carita. It was a huge structure: about 65 meters long and at least 45 meters wide. The basilica had nine naves. The central nave had a span of 13 m. South of this nave was the apse of the basilica. Four columns point to the iconostasis that once stood here.

There are only two monuments of the Punic era in Carthage - the ruins of the temples of Tanit and Baal-Hammon and the cemetery of sacrifices to the goddess Tanit (each family, including the royal one, sacrificed a baby).

Tinnit (Tanit) is a strange goddess. It is not known how her cult came about. Tinnit was identified with Astarte, the goddess of fertility and love in Syria, Phenicia and Palestine; in Hellenistic times - with the mother of the gods Juno, with Aphrodite Urania or Artemis.

She is a virgin and at the same time a spouse; "eye and face" of the supreme deity, Baal Hammon, the goddess of the moon, sky, fertility, patroness of childbirth.

At the same time, Tinnitus does not shine with female beauty and article. The ancient sculptor depicted her as a squat woman with a lion's head; later, the "great mother" was represented as a winged woman with a lunar disk in her hands. In various images, Tinnit is surrounded by monstrous creatures: winged bulls, elephants flying with their trunks raised, fish with human heads, and many-legged snakes.

Modern Tunisia, on whose territory Carthage was once located, is a small prosperous Mediterranean state, which is not without reason called "the most European country in North Africa."
1.2 CITY AND POWER

Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the mainland, it had an advantageous geographical position, which favored trade, and in addition, it allowed controlling the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further west.

Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from the Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 r BC. the Romans methodically destroyed the city, and in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC, intensive construction was carried out.D the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was greatly fortified. The city had a market square, council building, court and temples. The quarter called Megara was full of vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading ashore, it was possible to pull out simultaneously up to 220 ships (ancient ships should, if possible, be kept on land). A military harbor and an arsenal were located behind the commercial harbor.

Regions and cities.The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians proper - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands fell under the rule of the city. When the ancient writers speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they undoubtedly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies - Utica, Leptis, Gadrumet and others. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage managed (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean Sea.

The Carthaginian state was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was located more than 300 km east of Ei (modern Tripoli). The ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities have been discovered between it and the Atlantic Ocean. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Gannon led an expedition that established several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors.

The colonies and trading posts for the most part were located at a distance of about one day of sailing from each other. They were usually found on islands near the coast, on headlands, in river estuaries, or in those places on the mainland from which it was easy to reach the sea. For example, Leptis, located not far from modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final coastal point of the great caravan route from the interior regions, from where merchants carried slaves and golden sand. This trade probably began in the early stages of Carthage's history.

The state included Malta and two neighboring islands. For centuries Carthage waged a struggle with the Sicilian Greeks, under his rule were Lilybey and other reliably fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various times, and other areas on the island (it happened that in his hands was almost all of Sicily, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were denied access to the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. the Carthaginians began to master Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks settled on the eastern coast.

Apparently, when creating its own power scattered across different territories, Carthage did not set any other goals than establishing control over them in order to obtain the maximum possible profit.

CHAPTER
II

CARPHAGENIAN CIVILIZATION

2.1 Agriculture.

The Carthaginians were skilled agriculturalists. Wheat and barley were the most important cereals. Some grain probably came from Sicily and Sardinia. Medium quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers, found during archaeological excavations in Carthage, indicate that the Carthaginians imported wines of higher quality from Greece or from the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine, even special laws against drunkenness were adopted, for example, prohibiting the use of wine by soldiers. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palm grew here.. In Carthage, horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred.

Unlike republican Rome, small farmers in Carthage did not form the backbone of society. Most of the African possessions of Carthage were divided among the wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates the economy was conducted on a scientific basis. A certain Magon, who probably lived in the 3rd c. BC, wrote a manual for farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wishing to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Passages from the work cited in Roman sources indicate that Mago used Greek manuals on agriculture, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and dealt with all aspects of agricultural production. Probably, local residents - Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves led by overseers worked as tenants, or sharecroppers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably implied specialization: more hilly areas were set aside for orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.

In addition to houses, temples and palaces of the nobility, there were many workshops in the city: they worked iron, copper, lead, bronze and precious metals, forged weapons, made leather, weaved and dyed fabrics, made furniture, ceramic dishes, jewelry from precious stones, gold , ivory and glass.

Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly replicating Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage conquered all markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the bright purple paint commonly known as Tyrian purple, is known in the later Roman period in North Africa, but it can be assumed to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Crimson, a sea snail containing this dye, was best harvested in the fall and winter, during seasons not suitable for seafaring. Permanent settlements were established in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex.

In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner who used slave labor in arsenals, in shipyards or in construction. Archaeologists have not found data that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the western market closed to outsiders, while there are many small workshops. It is often very difficult to distinguish among the finds of Carthaginian products from items imported from Phenicia or Greece. Artisans successfully reproduced simple items, and it seems that the Carthaginians were not too eager to make anything other than copies.

Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which had been known from ancient times by the masters of Ancient Phenicia, who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metalworkers have consistently excelled in craftsmanship. There is evidence of their skill in the processing of iron and bronze. The amount of jewelry found during excavations is small, but it seems that these people were not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the departed.

The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramics. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns were found, filled with items that were intended for firing. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery found throughout the Carthage region - Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. From time to time, Carthaginian pottery is also found on the coast of France and Northern Italy, where the Greeks from Massalia (modern-day Marseille) dominated trade and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade.

Archaeological finds paint a picture of the stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, cups, pot-bellied jugs for various purposes, called amphoras, water jugs and lamps. Research shows that their production existed from ancient times until the death of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products mostly reproduced Phoenician samples, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It looks like the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The Carthaginians especially valued Greek products, which was manifested in the imitation of Greek pottery and sculpture and the presence of a large number of Greek products of this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.
2.2 TRADING POLICY

The Carthaginians were particularly successful in trade. Carthage may well be called a trading state, since its policy was largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded in order to expand trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In the treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was envisaged that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize the borders of Rome and respect its people as well as its allies.

The Carthaginians concluded agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force in order to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent shores of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. The authorities kept the complex structures of Carthage's commercial harbor in good condition, as did its naval harbor, which, apparently, was open to ships of foreign ships, but few seafarers entered it.

It is striking that a trading state such as Carthage did not pay due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied significantly in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most transactions were made through direct exchange.

Goods and trade routes. Specific data on Carthage's trade items is surprisingly scarce, although evidence of its trade interests is plentiful. Typical of such evidence is the story of Herodotus about how trade took place on the west coast of Africa. The Carthaginians disembarked at a certain place and laid out the goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and put a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough of it, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What kind of goods they were is not mentioned in the story.

Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple ceramics for sale or exchange to those western regions where they were monopolists, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and simple glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some in the Punic colonies. According to several accounts, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves.

It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Finds of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships.

Some mentions in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians imported various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory was highly valued from Africa. During the empire, a huge number of wild animals were delivered from Roman North Africa for the device of games. Figs and honey are also mentioned.

It is believed that the Carthaginian ships sailed across the Atlantic Ocean for tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have brought some of the tin to other places where it was required for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. The ropes for the Punic warships were made from the esparto herb native to Spain and North Africa. An important trade item, due to its high price, was the purple dye made from crimson. In many localities, traders acquired hides of wild animals, leather and found markets to sell them.

As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Ei, as well as Gigtis, which lay a little to the west. They carried ostrich feathers and eggs, which were popular in ancient times, and served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with fierce faces and used, it is said, as masks to scare away demons. Ivory and slaves were also brought with caravans. But the most important cargo was golden sand from the Gold Coast or from Guinea.

Some of the best goods the Carthaginians imported for their own consumption. Some of the pottery found in Carthage was brought from Greece or from Campagna in southern Italy, where it was produced by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles from Rhodes amphorae found during excavations in Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, high-quality Attic ceramics are not found here.

ABOUT culture of the Carthaginians almost nothing is known in the history of ancient Carthage... The only lengthy texts that have come down to us in their language are contained in the play by Plautus Puniyets, where one of the characters, Gannon, delivers a monologue, apparently in a genuine Punic dialect, followed by a significant portion of it in Latin. In addition, a lot of Gannon's remarks are scattered over the play, also with a translation into Latin. Unfortunately, scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only by geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these scraps, the similarity between Punic and Hebrew is very helpful.

The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be attributed to the sphere of art, this people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes copied not the best examples. As for the literature, there is no evidence of their writing any other writings besides purely practical ones, such as the manual on agriculture of Magon, and one or two smaller compiled texts in Greek. We are not aware of the presence of anything in Carthage that could be called "fine literature."

Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - the Semitic god known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in Aeneidcalled Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifice, especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is the belief in the effectiveness of the cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.

2.4 RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES

The oldest rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is unclear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.

Union with the Etruscans.The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, merchants and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. The main area of \u200b\u200btheir settlement was located directly north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - right up to the border where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians, the Greeks, who occupied Corsica.

The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC. the Romans drove them out of Rome and Latium. Soon thereafter, the Greeks of southern Italy, with the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. ended their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a foothold in Sardinia.

Fight for Sicily.Even before the great defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had a chance to measure strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least not later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Ferona in Akragant, clearly foreshadowed the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, just as happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared for the conquest of all of eastern Sicily. They acted in concert with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to a later tradition (undoubtedly wrong), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in the land battle of Gimera in Sicily took place in 480 BC. in the same day. Confirming the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Feron and Gelon fielded an irresistible force.

It took a long time before the Carthaginians again launched an offensive against Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled the Athenian invasion (415-413 BC), defeating them completely, they sought to subdue other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to turn to Carthage for help, who did not hesitate to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At this moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who founded the power of Syracuse on a cruel tyranny and for forty years fought with varying success against the Carthaginians. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. The Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing full control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity perpetrated by Dionysius were partly compensated by the help he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their struggle against Carthage. The persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who succeeded his father. However, this again did not achieve the goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of hostilities, which did not allow speaking about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded.

It is believed that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from a great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other peoples, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps the untimely death of Alexander in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles.

In 311 BC. the Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. In Syracuse, the new tyrant Agathocles ruled. The Carthaginians had already besieged him in Syracuse and, it seemed, had the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles with an army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, posing a threat to Carthage itself. From that moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. the usual war continued with varying success.

In 278 BC. the Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek general Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the South Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself ("Pyrrhic victory"), he crossed over to Sicily. There he pushed the Carthaginians back and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.

Wars with Rome. The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC. part of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, ruler of Syracuse, began to overpower them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians.

The war lasted 24 years (264–241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and at first achieved some success, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures caused by storms at sea, as well as a series of defeats on land (the army of the Carthaginians in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle near the Aegadian Islands, near the western coast of Sicily. The war brought huge losses and losses to both sides, while Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC. A dangerous uprising of the Carthaginian mercenaries, dissatisfied with the delay in money, broke out, which was suppressed only in 238 BC.

In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca went to Spain and began to conquer the interior. The Roman embassy, \u200b\u200bwhich appeared with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay Rome an indemnity as soon as possible. The wealth of Spain - flora and fauna, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, a conflict erupted again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC. Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general, traveled overland from Spain across the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army with several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the battle of Cannes. However, Rome did not ask for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of confrontation in Italy, moved the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC).

Carthage lost Spain and finally lost the position of a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans feared the revival of Carthage. It is said that Cato the Elder ended every speech in the Senate with the words "Delenda est Carthago" - "Carthage must be destroyed." It is said that it was the magnificent Carthaginian olives that led Senator Cato to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to destroy Carthage, a city that flourished despite wars. He visited here as part of the Roman embassy in the middle of the 2nd century BC. e. and collected a handful of fruit in a leather bag.

In Rome, Cato presented luxurious olives to the senators, declaring with disarming directness: "The land where they grow is located only three days by sea." It was on that day that the phrase was first heard, thanks to which Cato went down in history. Cato understood a lot about olives and the fate of the world: he was an agronomist and a writer ...

"... Carthage must be destroyed!" - with these famous words the consul Cato the Elder finished his historic speech in the Roman Senate. His words turned out to be prophetic - the army of Carthage was defeated. The mighty state of Hannibal, which once conquered all of North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and even southern Spain, ceased to exist, and the once prosperous Mediterranean Carthage was turned into ruins. Even the land on which the city stood was ordered to be sprinkled with a thick layer of salt.

In 149 BC. the exorbitant demands of Rome forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state to enter the third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later, the Punic language was still spoken in some rural areas of North Africa, and many of the people who lived there probably had Punic blood in their veins. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
CHAPTER
III

ROMAN CARPHAGENE

3.1 CARPHAGENE
HOW LARGE
TH CITY
OH CENTER
.

Julius Caesar, who had a practical fold, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it senseless to leave such an advantageous place in many respects unused. In 44 BC, 102 years after the death, the city began a new life. From the very beginning, it flourished as the administrative center and port of an area rich in agricultural production. This period in the history of Carthage lasted for almost 750 years.

Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the seat of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the eyes of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial land holdings, which made up a significant part of the province, was also located here.

Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its surroundings. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage in his youth, and later achieved such fame there thanks to his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Marcus Cornelius Fronton, mentor to Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Sever.

The ancient Punic religion survived in a romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno of Heaven, and the image of Baal merged with Cronus (Saturn). Nevertheless, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained fame in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century. Cyprian was the Carthaginian bishop, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin scholarship in the empire; St. Augustine in his Confessions gives us some vivid sketches of the life of students who attended the rhetorical school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century.

However, Carthage remained only a large urban center and had no political significance. The history of Roman Carthage mentions stories about public executions of Christians, about Tertullian's furious attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent worldly clothes, mentions of some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, but it never rises above the level of a large provincial city. For some time there was the capital of the Vandals (429–533 AD), who, like pirates once, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. Then this area was conquered by the Byzantines, who held it until in 697 Carthage fell under the onslaught of the Arabs.

In 439 A.D. e. the Vandals, led by King Henzerich, defeated the Roman troops, and Carthage became the capital of their state. A hundred years later, he passed to the Byzantines and vegetated in provincial silence, until the Arabs in 698 again swept him off the face of the earth - this time irrevocably.

Tunisia Coordinates Coordinates:  /  (G) (O)36.861111 , 10.331667 36 ° 51'40 ″ s. sh. 10 ° 19′54 ″ in. etc. /  36.861111 ° N sh. 10.331667 ° E etc. (G) (O) Foundation date 814 BC First Jewish settlement 146 BC

Carthage phoenician state
814 BC e. - 146 BC e.
270px
Capital	Carthage
Languages)	phoenician
Continuity
Roman Republic →

Carthage (Qart-ḥada (št)) is a Phoenician state with its capital in the city of the same name, which existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia.

Of particular interest to Jews due to the Phoenician origin of its inhabitants, its rulers, called "sufets" (cf. Hebrew "שופטים" (judges)), and because of the religion of the inhabitants.

Origin of the name and mention in Jewish sources

Name Qart-ḥadašt (in Punic notation without vowels Qrtḥdšt) is translated from the Phoenician language as "new city".

The name of the city in ancient Jewish documents

The city called " קרת חדשת "(" New city ") in the original spelling, is referred to in Jewish documents of Talmudic times only as" קרתגיני "(" Ḳarthigini "), the name is equivalent to the Byzantine form Kαρθαγένη and according to Siriac, the Greek form Kαρχηδών was introduced later.

Despite the peculiar form, perhaps chosen with reference to the founder of Dido (" קרתא " + γυνή , "City Woman"), the Hebrew word certainly defines Carthage in Africa, not Cartagena in Spain. Later Jewish chronicles, which date the founding of Carthage to the time of David, use the Ḳarṭagena version of the Ḳarṭigini (c ט instead ח , sometimes even in the Talmud, "David Hans" by 3882), "Ḳartini" and "Ḳartigni", sometimes adding the curious remark that the Talmud refers to two cities of Carthage, which, however, is erroneous.

Carthage in the books of Josephus

But a widespread rabbinic legend identifies the land of the Amazons with Carthage (Lev. XXVII P.1) or with Africa (Tamid 32b), in both cases according to the classical tradition.

Carthage was recognized as one of the four largest cities in the Roman Empire. Amora of the third century gave the following curious sentence: "From Tire to Carthage, Israel and his" father in heaven "are known; from Tire to the west and from Carthage to the east Israel and his God are not known", which probably indicates an indication of the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of the Semitic race ...

Story

Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the city of Tire on the site of the present city of Tunis. The location of the city (practically in the center of the Mediterranean Sea) made it the leader of the Mediterranean sea trade.

Religion

The most notorious feature of the religion of Carthage was child sacrifice... According to Diodorus of Siculus, in 310 BC. BC, during the attack on the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion states: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as the sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation for the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the well-being of both the family and society. "

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a place where they found several rows of urns with charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was named Tophet... The burials were under steles, on which were written the requests that accompanied the sacrifices.

It is estimated that the site contains the remains of over 20,000 children who have been sacrificed in just 200 years. Today, some revisionists argue that the burial site was simply a graveyard for children born dead or under the age to be buried in the necropolis. However, it cannot be asserted with complete certainty that people were not sacrificed in Carthage.

Social system

According to its rights, the entire population was divided into several ethnic groups.

The Libyans were in the most difficult position. The territory of Libya was divided into areas subordinate to strategists, taxes were very high, their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low.

Siculs - the Sicilian inhabitants - made up the other part of the population. Their rights in the field of political administration were limited by the "Sidonian law" (its content is unknown). The Siculs, however, enjoyed free trade.

Natives of the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, immigrants - in a word, not Phoenicians) was similar to the Siculs - "Sidonian law".

Riches of Carthage

Carthage created its own trading network and developed it to an unprecedented size. He was mainly engaged in the import of metals. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade by means of a powerful fleet and hired troops.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. navigator Gimilkon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin.

And 30 years later, Hannon, a native of an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships, which had 30,000 men and women. People were planted in different parts of the coast to establish new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the African coast, Gannon reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the coast of Cameroon.

The entrepreneurial spirit and business acumen of its inhabitants helped Carthage become, admittedly, the richest city of the ancient world... “At the beginning of the III century BC. e. thanks to technology, navy and trade ... the city has moved to the forefront, "says the book" Carthage ". The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: "Their power in military terms became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian."

Military forces

The army of Carthage was mostly mercenary. The infantry was based on Spanish, African, Greek, and Gallic mercenaries. The Carthaginian aristocracy served in the "sacred unit" - the heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of the Numidians, who were considered the most skillful warriors in antiquity, and the Iberians.

In general, the composition of the Punian the army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states... The army was headed by a commander-in-chief, elected by a council of elders, but by the end of the state's existence, this election was carried out by the army, which indicates monarchist tendencies.

Wars with Rome

In the III century BC. e. Carthage's interests came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations, previously allied, began to deteriorate. Finally, in 264 BC. e. the First Punic War began.

In 241 BC. e. Rome was able to deploy a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and after the defeat was forced to make peace.

The Carthaginian government made an attempt to reduce the pay of the mercenaries. They revolted, which almost ended in the death of the country.

The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to govern effectively led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly endowed him with the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he moved the fighting to Spain. For 16 years (236-220 BC) most of Spain was conquered and firmly attached to the metropolis.

A new war was fought in Italy in 218-202 BC. e. and ended with the defeat of Carthage.

The third Punic War led to the destruction of Carthage and capture by Rome of all other Phoenician colonies in Africa and Spain.

Rome in Africa

100 years after the destruction of Carthage, Julius Caesar decided to establish a colony on the site of the city. These plans were destined to come true only after his death. Over time, Carthage became "one of the most luxurious cities in the Roman world", the second largest city in the West after Rome.

Until the beginning of the IV century. the standard of living of the Jews of Carthage was comparatively high. Many Jewish families belonged to the wealthiest strata of society. Jews there were mainly engaged in commerce. The export of grain and olive oil from the province of Africa Propria was under the almost complete control of the large Jewish shipowners who lived in Rome and united in the Navicular corporation.

Ancient Carthage was founded in 814 BC. colonists from the Phoenician city of Fez. According to ancient legend, Carthage was founded by the queen Elissa (Dido), who was forced to flee from Fez after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tire, killed her husband Sychei in order to seize his wealth.

Its name in Phoenician "Kart-Hadasht" means in translation "New city", perhaps, in contrast to the more ancient colony of Utica.

According to another legend about the founding of the city, Elissa was allowed to occupy as much land as a bull's hide would cover. She acted quite cunningly - taking possession of a large piece of land, cutting the skin into narrow belts. Therefore, the citadel erected in this place began to be called Birsa (which means "skin").

Carthage was originally a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, except for the significant fact that it was not part of the Tyrian state, although it retained spiritual ties with the metropolis.

The city's economy was based primarily on intermediary trade. The craft was underdeveloped and did not differ from the oriental in its main technical and aesthetic characteristics. There was no agriculture. The Carthaginians did not have possessions behind the narrow space of the city itself, and for the land on which the city stood, they had to pay tribute to the local population. The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy, and the head of state was the founder of the city. With her death, probably the only member of the royal family who was in Carthage disappeared. As a result, a republic was established in Carthage, and power passed to those ten "princeps" who had previously surrounded the queen.

Territorial expansion of Carthage

Terracotta mask. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.

In the first half of the 7th century. BC. begins a new stage in the history of Carthage. It is possible that many new immigrants from the metropolis moved there due to fear of the Assyrian invasion, and this led to the expansion of the city attested by archeology. This strengthened it and allowed it to move to a more active trade - in particular, Carthage is replacing Phenicia itself in trade with Etruria. All this leads to significant changes in Carthage, the external expression of which is a change in the forms of ceramics, the revival of old Canaanite traditions already left in the East, the emergence of new, original forms of art and craft products.

Already at the beginning of the second stage of its history, Carthage becomes such a significant city that it can begin its own colonization. The first colony was bred by the Carthaginians around the middle of the 7th century. BC. on the island of Ebes off the east coast of Spain. Apparently, the Carthaginians did not want to oppose the interests of the metropolis in southern Spain and were looking for workarounds to Spanish silver and tin. However, Carthaginian activity in this area soon stumbled upon the rivalry of the Greeks, who settled in the early 6th century. BC. in southern Gaul and eastern Spain. The first round of the Carthaginian-Greek wars remained with the Greeks, who, although they did not oust the Carthaginians from Ebes, managed to paralyze this important point.

A setback in the far west of the Mediterranean forced the Carthaginians to turn to its center. They established a number of colonies east and west of their city and subdued the old Phoenician colonies in Africa. Having strengthened, the Carthaginians could no longer tolerate the situation that they paid tribute to the Libyans for their own territory. An attempt to free himself from tribute is associated with the name of the commander Malchus, who, having won victories in Africa, freed Carthage from tribute.

Somewhat later, in the 60-50s of the 6th century. BC, the same Malchus fought in Sicily, the result of which, apparently, was the subjugation of the Phoenician colonies on the island. And after victories in Sicily, Malchus crossed over to Sardinia, but was defeated there. This defeat was for the Carthaginian oligarchs, who were afraid of the too victorious commander, an excuse to sentence him to exile. In response, Malchus returned to Carthage and seized power. However, he was soon defeated and executed. The leading place in the state was taken by Magon.

Magon and his successors faced difficult challenges. To the west of Italy, the Greeks established themselves, threatening the interests of both the Carthaginians and some Etruscan cities. With one of these cities - Caere, Carthage was in especially close economic and cultural contacts. In the middle of the 5th century. BC. the Carthaginians and Ceretans concluded an alliance directed against the Greeks who settled in Corsica. Around 535 BC in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks defeated the combined Carthaginian-Ceretan fleet, but suffered such heavy losses that they were forced to leave Corsica. The Battle of Alalia contributed to a clearer distribution of spheres of influence in the center of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was included in the Carthaginian sphere, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Carthage with Rome in 509 BC. However, the Carthaginians could not completely capture Sardinia. A whole system of fortresses, ramparts and ditches separated their possessions from the territory of the free Sards.

The Carthaginians, led by rulers and generals from the Magonid family, fought hard on all fronts: in Africa, Spain and Sicily. In Africa, they subdued all the Phoenician colonies that were there, including the ancient Utica, which did not want to become part of their power for a long time, waged a war with the Greek colony of Cyrene, located between Carthage and Egypt, repulsed the attempt of the Spartan prince Dorieus to establish himself east of Carthage and drove the Greeks out of the arisen there were their cities west of the capital. They launched an offensive against the local tribes. In a bitter struggle, the Magonids managed to subdue them. Part of the conquered territory was directly subordinated to Carthage, forming its agricultural territory - the chora. The other part was left to the Libyans, but subject to the strict control of the Carthaginians, and the Libyans had to pay heavy taxes to their masters and serve in their army. The heavy Carthaginian yoke more than once caused powerful uprisings of the Libyans.

Phoenician ring with a crest. Carthage. Gold. VI-V centuries. BC.

In Spain at the end of the VI century. BC. The Carthaginians took advantage of the Tartessian attack on Hades in order to intervene in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula under the pretext of defending a consanguineous city. They captured Hades, who did not want to peacefully submit to his "savior", which was followed by the collapse of the Tartessian state. Carthaginians at the beginning of the 5th century BC. established control over its remains. However, an attempt to extend it to Southeast Spain provoked strong resistance from the Greeks. In the naval battle of Artemisia, the Carthaginians were defeated and were forced to abandon their attempt. But the strait at the Pillars of Hercules remained under their rule.

At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC. Sicily became the scene of a fierce Carthaginian-Greek battle. Unsuccessful in Africa, Doria planned to establish himself in the west of Sicily, but was defeated by the Carthaginians and killed.

His death became a pretext for the Syracuse tyrant Gelon to war with Carthage. In 480 BC. The Carthaginians, having entered into an alliance with Xerxes, who was advancing at that time on Balkan Greece, and taking advantage of the difficult political situation in Sicily, where part of the Greek cities opposed Syracuse and entered into an alliance with Carthage, launched an attack on the Greek part of the island. But in the fierce battle at Gimer they were utterly defeated, and their commander Hamilcar, the son of Magon, perished. As a result, the Carthaginians could hardly stay in the previously captured small part of Sicily.

The Magonids made attempts to establish themselves on the Atlantic shores of Africa and Europe. To this end, in the first half of the 5th century. BC. two expeditions were undertaken:

1. southward under the leadership of Gannon,
2. in the north, led by Gimilkon.

So in the middle of the 5th century. BC. formed the Carthaginian state, which at that time became the largest and one of the strongest states in the Western Mediterranean. It consisted of -

• the northern coast of Africa to the west of the Greek Cyrenaica and several inland areas of this continent, as well as a small part of the Atlantic coast immediately south of the Pillars of Hercules;
• southwestern Spain and much of the Balearic Islands off the eastern coast of that country;
• Sardinia (in fact, only a part of it);
• phoenician cities in the west of Sicily;
• islands between Sicily and Africa.

The internal situation of the Carthaginian state

The position of the cities, allies and subjects of Carthage

The supreme god of the Carthaginians is Baal Hammon. Terracotta. 1st century AD Carthage.

This power was a complex phenomenon. Its core was Carthage itself with a directly subordinate territory - the chora. The chora was located directly outside the city walls and was divided into separate territorial districts, governed by a special official, each district had several communities.

With the expansion of the Carthaginian state, the chorus sometimes included extra-African possessions, like the part of Sardinia captured by the Carthaginians. Another component of the state was the Carthaginian colonies, which supervised the surrounding lands, were in some cases centers of trade and crafts, served as a reservoir for absorbing the "surplus" of the population. They had certain rights, but were under the control of a special resident sent from the capital.

The state included the old colonies of Tire. Some of them (Hades, Utica, Kossura) were officially considered equal with the capital, others legally occupied a lower position. But the official position and the real role in the power of these cities did not always coincide. So, Utica was practically in complete submission to Carthage (which later led more than once to the fact that this city, under favorable conditions for it, occupied an anti-Carfagenian position), and the legally lower cities of Sicily, in whose loyalty the Carthaginians were especially interested, enjoyed significant privileges.

The power consisted of tribes and cities that were subject to Carthage. These were the Libyans outside the Chora and the subordinate tribes of Sardinia and Spain. They, too, were in different positions. The Carthaginians did not interfere unnecessarily in their internal affairs, limiting themselves to taking hostages, enlisting in military service and a rather heavy tax.

The Carthaginians also ruled over the "allies". Those were ruled independently, but were deprived of foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. Their attempt to evade submission to the Carthaginians was seen as a rebellion. Some of them were also subject to tax, their loyalty was ensured by the hostages. But the farther from the borders of the state, the more independent the local kings, dynasts and tribes became. All this complex conglomerate of cities, peoples and tribes was overlaid with a grid of territorial division.

Economy and social structure

The creation of the power led to significant changes in the economic and social structure of Carthage. With the advent of land holdings, where the estates of aristocrats were located, various agriculture began to develop in Carthage. It provided even more products to the Carthaginian merchants (however, often the merchants themselves were rich landowners), and this stimulated the further growth of Carthaginian trade. Carthage becomes one of the largest trade centers in the Mediterranean.

A large number of subordinate population appears, located at different levels of the social ladder. At the very top of this ladder stood the Carthaginian slave-owning aristocracy, which constituted the top of the Carthaginian citizenship - “the people of Carthage”, and at the very bottom - slaves and groups of the dependent population close to them. Between these extremes, there was a whole range of foreigners, "meteks", the so-called "Sidonian husbands" and other categories of the unequal, semi-dependent and dependent population, including residents of subordinate territories.

There was a rise in opposition to the granting of Carthaginian citizenship to the rest of the population of the state, including the slaves. The civilian collective itself consisted of two groups -

1. aristocrats, or "powerful", and
2. "Small", i.e. plebs.

Despite the division into two groups, the citizens acted together as a close-knit natural association of oppressors, interested in exploiting all other inhabitants of the power.

The system of property and power in Carthage

The material basis of the civilian collective was communal property, which acted in two forms: the property of the entire community (for example, the arsenal, shipyards, etc.) and the property of individual citizens (land, workshops, shops, ships, except for the state, especially the military, etc.). etc.). Apart from the communal property, there was no other sector. Even the property of the temples was brought under the control of the community.

Sarcophagus of the priestess. Marble. IV-III centuries. BC. Carthage.

The civic collective, in theory, also possessed the entirety of state power. We do not know exactly what posts were held by the one who seized power Malchus and the Magonids who came after him to rule the state (sources in this regard are very contradictory). In fact, their position seemed to resemble that of the Greek tyrants. Under the leadership of the Magonids, the Carthaginian state was actually created. But then it seemed to the Carthaginian aristocrats that this family became "difficult for the freedom of the state," and Magon's grandchildren were expelled. The expulsion of the Magonids in the middle of the 5th century. BC. led to the approval of the republican form of government.

The highest power in the republic, at least officially, and in critical moments and in fact, belonged to the people's assembly, which embodied the sovereign will of the civilian collective. In fact, the leadership was carried out by oligarchic councils and magistrates elected from among the rich and noble citizens, primarily two Sufets, in whose hands the executive power was held for a year.

The people could intervene in government affairs only in case of disagreements among the rulers, which arose during periods of political crises. The people also had the right to choose, albeit very limited, of advisers and magistrates. In addition, the "people of Carthage" were tamed in every possible way by the aristocrats, who gave them a share of the benefits of the existence of the power: not only the "powerful", but also the "small" profited from the sea and commercial power of Carthage, from the "plebs" were recruited people sent for supervision over subordinate communities and tribes, participation in wars gave a certain benefit, because in the presence of a significant mercenary army, citizens were still not completely separated from military service, they were represented at various levels of the land army, from privates to the commander, and especially in the navy.

Thus, a self-sufficient civic collective with sovereign power and based on communal property was formed in Carthage, next to which there was no royal power over citizenship, or a non-communal sector in socio-economic terms. Therefore, we can say that a policy arose here, i.e. a form of economic, social and political organization of citizens, which is characteristic of the ancient version of the ancient society. Comparing the situation in Carthage with the situation in the metropolis, it should be noted that the cities of Phenicia itself, with all the development of the commodity economy, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the development of the ancient society, and Carthage became an ancient state.

The formation of the Carthaginian polis and the formation of the state were the main content of the second stage of the history of Carthage. The Carthaginian state arose during the fierce struggle of the Carthaginians with both the local population and the Greeks. Wars with the latter were of a pronounced imperialist character, for they were fought for the seizure and exploitation of foreign territories and peoples.

Rise of Carthage

From the second half of the 5th century. BC. the third stage of the Carthaginian history begins. The state had already been created, and now it was about its expansion and attempts to establish hegemony in the Western Mediterranean. The main obstacle to this was originally all the same Western Greeks. In 409 BC. The Carthaginian general Hannibal landed in Motia, and a new round of wars began in Sicily, which continued with interruptions for more than a century and a half.

Gilded Bronze Breastplate. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.

Initially, success leaned towards Carthage. The Carthaginians subdued the Elim and Sicans living in western Sicily and launched an offensive against Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city on the island and the most implacable enemy of Carthage. In 406 the Carthaginians laid siege to Syracuse, and the plague that had just begun in the Carthaginian camp saved the Syracusans. World 405 BC secured the western part of Sicily to Carthage. True, this success turned out to be fragile, and the border between Carthaginian and Greek Sicily always remained pulsating, moving either to the east or to the west as one side or the other succeeded.

The failures of the Carthaginian army almost immediately responded with an exacerbation of internal contradictions in Carthage, including powerful uprisings of the Libyans and slaves. End of V - first half of IV century BC. were a time of sharp clashes within citizenship, both between individual groups of aristocrats, and, apparently, between the "plebs" involved in these clashes and aristocratic groups. At the same time, the slaves rose up against the masters, and the subordinate peoples against the Carthaginians. And only with calmness within the state, the Carthaginian government was able in the middle of the 4th century. BC. resume external expansion.

Then the Carthaginians established control over the southeast of Spain, which they unsuccessfully tried to do a century and a half ago. In Sicily, they launched a new offensive against the Greeks and achieved a number of successes, again being under the walls of Syracuse and even capturing their port. The Syracusans were forced to turn to their metropolis Corinth for help, and from there an army arrived led by a capable commander Timoleont. The commander of the Carthaginian troops in Sicily, Gannon, was unable to prevent the landing of Timoleont and was recalled to Africa, and his successor was defeated and cleared the Syracuse harbor. Gannon, returning to Carthage, decided to use the resulting situation and seize power. After the failure of the coup, he fled the city, armed 20 thousand slaves and called on the Libyans and Moors to arms. The mutiny was defeated, Gannon, along with all his relatives, was executed, and only one of his sons, Gisgon, managed to escape death and was expelled from Carthage.

However, soon a turn of affairs in Sicily forced the Carthaginian government to turn to Gisgon. The Carthaginians were severely defeated by Timoleon, and then a new army was sent there, led by Gisgon. Gisgon entered into an alliance with some of the tyrants of the Greek cities of the island and defeated individual units of Timoleont's army. This allowed in 339 BC. conclude a relatively advantageous peace for Carthage, according to which he retained his possessions in Sicily. After these events, the Hannonian family for a long time became the most influential in Carthage, although there could be no question of any tyranny, as was the case with the Magonids.

The wars with the Syracuse Greeks went on as usual and with varying success. At the end of the IV century. BC. the Greeks even landed in Africa, threatening Carthage directly. The Carthaginian commander Bomilcar decided to seize the opportunity and seize power. But the citizens opposed him, suppressing the rebellion. And soon the Greeks were repelled from the Carthaginian walls and returned to Sicily. The attempt of the Epirus king Pyrrhus to oust the Carthaginians from Sicily in the 70s was also unsuccessful. III century. BC. All these endless and tiring wars showed that neither the Carthaginians nor the Greeks had the strength to take Sicily away from each other.

The emergence of a new rival - Rome

The situation changed in the 60s. III century. BC, when a new predator, Rome, intervened in this struggle. In 264, the first war broke out between Carthage and Rome. In 241 it ended with the complete loss of Sicily.

This outcome of the war aggravated the contradictions in Carthage and gave rise to an acute internal crisis there. Its most striking manifestation was a powerful uprising, in which hired soldiers took part, dissatisfied with the failure to pay the money due to them, the local population, who sought to throw off the heavy Carthaginian oppression, slaves who hated their masters. The uprising unfolded in the immediate vicinity of Carthage, probably also encompassing Sardinia and Spain. The fate of Carthage hung in the balance. With great difficulty and at the cost of incredible cruelty, Hamilcar, who had previously become famous in Sicily, managed to suppress this uprising, and then went to Spain, continuing the "pacification" of the Carthaginian possessions. With Sardinia, they had to say goodbye, yielding it to Rome, which was threatening a new war.

The second aspect of the crisis was the growing role of citizenship. The rank and file, who in theory held sovereign power, now sought to turn theory into practice. A democratic "party" emerged, headed by Hasdrubal. A split also occurred among the oligarchy, in which two groups emerged.

1. One was headed by Gannon from the influential Gannonid family - they stood for a cautious and peaceful policy that excluded a new conflict with Rome;
2. and the other - Hamilcar, representing the Barkid family (nicknamed Hamilcar - Barca, literally, "lightning") - they were for an active one, with the goal of taking revenge from the Romans.

The rise of the Barkids and the war with Rome

Presumably a bust of Hannibal Barca. Found in Capua in 1932.

Wide circles of citizenship were also interested in revenge, for which the inflow of wealth from the subordinate lands and from the monopoly of sea trade was beneficial. Therefore, an alliance arose between the Barkids and the Democrats, sealed by Hasdrubal's marriage to Hamilcar's daughter. Relying on the support of democracy, Hamilcar managed to overcome the intrigues of his enemies and go to Spain. In Spain, Hamilcar and his successors from the Barkid family, including his son-in-law Hasdrubal, greatly expanded the Carthaginian possessions.

After the overthrow of the Magonids, the ruling circles of Carthage did not allow the unification of military and civil functions in the same hands. However, during the war with Rome, they began to practice something like that, following the example of the Hellenistic states, but not at the national level, as it was under the Magonids, but at the local level. Such was the rule of the Barkids in Spain. But the Barkids exercised their powers in the Iberian Peninsula independently. A strong reliance on the army, close ties with democratic circles in Carthage itself and the special relationship established between the Barkids and the local population, contributed to the fact that in Spain a semi-independent state of the Barkids, essentially Hellenistic, arose.

Already Hamilcar considered Spain as a springboard for a new war with Rome. His son Hannibal in 218 BC provoked this war. The Second Punic War began. Hannibal himself went to Italy, leaving his brother in Spain. Military operations unfolded on several fronts, and the Carthaginian generals (especially Hannibal) won a number of victories. But the victory in the war remained with Rome.

World 201 BC deprived Carthage of the military fleet, of all non-African possessions and forced the Carthaginians to recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa, to whose king the Carthaginians had to return all the possessions of his ancestors (this article put a "time bomb" under Carthage), and the Carthaginians themselves did not have the right to wage war without permission Rome. This war not only deprived Carthage of the position of a great power, but also significantly limited its sovereignty. The third stage of the Carthaginian history, which began with such happy omens, ended with the bankruptcy of the Carthaginian aristocracy, which had ruled the republic for so long.

Internal position

At this stage, no radical transformation of the economic, social and political life of Carthage took place. But certain changes did take place. In the IV century. BC. Carthage began to mint its own coin. A certain Hellenization of a part of the Carthaginian aristocracy takes place, and two cultures arise in Carthaginian society, as is typical for the Hellenistic world. As in the Hellenistic states, in a number of cases civil and military power is concentrated in the same hands. In Spain, a semi-independent state of the Barkids arises, the heads of which felt their kinship with the then rulers of the Middle East and where a system of relations between the conquerors and the local population appeared, similar to that existing in the Hellenistic states.

Carthage had significant tracts of land suitable for cultivation. In contrast to other Phoenician city-states in Carthage, large-scale agricultural plantations developed on a large scale, where the labor of numerous slaves was exploited. The plantation economy of Carthage played a very important role in the economic history of the ancient world, since it influenced the development of the same type of slave economy, first in Sicily, and then in Italy.

In the VI century. BC. or maybe in the 5th century. BC. in Carthage lived a theoretical writer of the plantation slave economy Magon, whose great work enjoyed such fame that the Roman army, which besieged Carthage in the middle of the II century. BC, the order was given to preserve this work. And he was really saved. By decree of the Roman Senate, the work of Magon was translated from the Phoenician language into Latin, and then was used by all theorists of agriculture in Rome. For their plantation economy, for their craft workshops and for their galleys, the Carthaginians needed a huge number of slaves, which they had selected from among the prisoners of war and bought.

Sunset of Carthage

The defeat in the second war with Rome opened the last stage of Carthaginian history. Carthage lost its power, and its possessions were reduced to a small district near the city itself. Opportunities for exploiting the non-Carthaginian population disappeared. Large groups of dependent and semi-dependent population got out of the control of the Carthaginian aristocracy. The agricultural area was sharply reduced, and trade again acquired predominant importance.

Glass containers for ointments and balms. OK. 200 BC

If earlier not only the nobility, but also the "plebs" received certain benefits from the existence of the state, now they have disappeared. This naturally caused an acute social and political crisis, which has now gone beyond the framework of existing institutions.

In 195 BC. Hannibal, becoming a Sufet, carried out a reform of the state system that struck a blow to the very foundations of the previous system with its domination of the aristocracy and opened the way to practical power, on the one hand, for wide sections of the civilian population, and on the other, for demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these strata. In these conditions, a fierce political struggle unfolded in Carthage, reflecting sharp contradictions within the civilian collective. At first, the Carthaginian oligarchy managed to take revenge, with the help of the Romans forcing Hannibal to flee without completing the work begun. But the oligarchs were unable to keep their power intact.

By the middle of the II century. BC. in Carthage, three political groups fought. In the course of this struggle, Hasdrubal became the leading figure, who led the anti-Roman group, and his position led to the establishment of a regime such as the Greek minor tyranny. The rise of Hasdrubal frightened the Romans. In 149 BC. Rome started a third war with Carthage. This time, for the Carthaginians, it was no longer about domination over certain subjects and not about hegemony, but about their own life and death. The war was practically reduced to the siege of Carthage. Despite the heroic resistance of the citizens, in 146 BC. the city fell and was destroyed. Most of the citizens died in the war, and the rest were taken into slavery by the Romans. The history of Phoenician Carthage is over.

The history of Carthage shows the process of transformation of the eastern city into an ancient state, the formation of a polis. And having become a polis, Carthage also experienced a crisis of this form of organization of ancient society. At the same time, it must be emphasized that what could have been the way out of the crisis here, we do not know, since the natural course of events was interrupted by Rome, which dealt a fatal blow to Carthage. The Phoenician cities of the metropolis, which developed in different historical conditions, remained within the eastern version of the ancient world and, having become part of the Hellenistic states, already entered a new historical path within them.