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Biotechnology is not just a newfangled, catchy name for one of the oldest fields of human activity; Only skeptics can think so. The very appearance of this term in our dictionary is deeply symbolic. It reflects a widely held, although not generally accepted, view that the application of biological materials and principles is believed to radically change many industries and human society itself over the next ten to fifty years.

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Biotechnology is the integration of natural and engineering sciences, which makes it possible to fully realize the capabilities of living organisms or their derivatives to create and modify products or processes for various purposes. As a result of the rapid progress of various components of physical and chemical biology, a new direction in science and production has emerged, called biotechnology. This direction has been formed over the past two decades and has already received powerful development.

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The term “biotechnology” was first used by the Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky in 1917. Individual elements of biotechnology appeared quite a long time ago. In essence, these were attempts to use individual cells (microorganisms) and some enzymes in industrial production to facilitate the occurrence of a number of chemical processes.

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Thus, in 1814, St. Petersburg academician K. S. Kirchhoff discovered the phenomenon of biological catalysis and tried to obtain sugar from available domestic raw materials using a biocatalytic method (until the mid-19th century, sugar was obtained only from sugar cane). In 1891, in the USA, the Japanese biochemist Dz. Takamine received the first patent for the use of enzyme preparations for industrial purposes: the scientist proposed using diastase for the saccharification of plant waste.

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The first antibiotic, penicillin, was isolated in 1940. Following penicillin, other antibiotics were discovered (this work continues to this day). With the discovery of antibiotics, new tasks immediately appeared: establishing the production of medicinal substances produced by microorganisms, working to reduce the cost and increase the availability of new drugs, and obtaining them in very large quantities needed by medicine.

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Synthesizing antibiotics chemically was very expensive or even incredibly difficult, almost impossible (it is not for nothing that the chemical synthesis of tetracycline by the Soviet scientist Academician M. M. Shemyakin is considered one of the largest achievements of organic synthesis). And then they decided to use microorganisms that synthesize penicillin and other antibiotics for the industrial production of drugs. This is how the most important area of ​​biotechnology arose, based on the use of microbiological synthesis processes.

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Microbiological synthesis The development of the microbiological industry, which produces valuable biosynthesis products, has made it possible to accumulate very important experience in the design, production and operation of fundamentally new industrial equipment. Modern microbiological production is the production of a very high culture. Its technology is very complex and specific, servicing the equipment requires mastering special skills, because the entire production operates only under conditions of strict sterility: as soon as only one cell of a microorganism of another species enters the fermenter, the entire production can stop - the “stranger” will multiply and begin to synthesize something completely different. what a person needs.

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Currently, with the help of microbiological synthesis, antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids, intermediates for the further synthesis of various substances, pheromones (substances with which the behavior of insects can be controlled), organic acids, feed proteins and others are produced. The technology for the production of these substances is well established; obtaining them microbiologically is economically profitable.

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Immobilized enzymes are also used in medicine. Thus, in our country, an immobilized streptokinase drug has been developed for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases (the drug is called “streptodecase”). This drug can be injected into blood vessels to dissolve blood clots that have formed in them. A water-soluble polysaccharide matrix (the class of polysaccharides includes, as is known, starch and cellulose; the selected polymer carrier was close to them in structure), to which streptokinase is chemically “attached”, significantly increases the stability of the enzyme, reduces its toxicity and allergic effect and does not affect the activity or ability of the enzyme to dissolve blood clots.

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Plasmids The greatest successes have been achieved in the field of changing the genetic apparatus of bacteria. Bacteria have learned to introduce new genes into the genome using small circular DNA molecules - plasmids, present in bacterial cells. The necessary genes are “glued” into the plasmids, and then such hybrid plasmids are added to a culture of bacteria, for example Escherichia coli. Some of these bacteria consume such plasmids entirely. After this, the plasmid begins to work in the cell as a gene, producing dozens of copies of itself in the E. coli cell, which ensure the synthesis of new proteins.

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So what is the structure of biotechnology? Considering that biotechnology is actively developing and its structure has not been finally determined, we can only talk about those types of biotechnology that currently exist. This is cellular biotechnology - applied microbiology, plant and animal cell cultures (this was discussed when we talked about the microbiological industry, the possibilities of cell cultures, and chemical mutagenesis). These are genetic biotechnology and molecular biotechnology (they provide the “DNA industry”). And finally, this is the modeling of complex biological processes and systems, including engineering enzymology (we talked about this when we talked about immobilized enzymes).

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It is clear that biotechnology has a huge future. And its further development is closely connected with the simultaneous development of all the most important branches of biological science that study living organisms at different levels of their organization. After all, no matter how biology differentiates, no matter what new scientific directions arise, the object of their research will always be living organisms, which are a set of material structures and diverse processes that make up a physical, chemical and biological unity. And this - the very nature of living things - predetermines the need for a comprehensive study of living organisms. Therefore, it is natural and natural that biotechnology arose as a result of the progress of a complex direction - physical and chemical biology and develops simultaneously and in parallel with this direction.

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In conclusion, one more important circumstance should be noted that distinguishes biotechnology from other areas of science and production. It is initially focused on problems that worry modern humanity: food production (primarily protein), maintaining energy balance in nature (moving away from the focus on the use of irreplaceable resources in favor of renewable resources), environmental protection (biotechnology - “clean” production, which, however, requires a lot of water). Thus, biotechnology is a natural result of the development of mankind, a sign of its achievement of an important, one might say turning point, stage of development.

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Completed by a student of class 11A of Municipal Educational Institution Secondary School No. 7 Anastasia Danilova Teacher: Oksana Viktorovna Golubtsova
Advances in modern biotechnology

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Introduction
Biotechnology is the industrial use of biological processes and systems based on the cultivation of highly effective forms of microorganisms, cultures of cells and tissues of plants and animals with properties necessary for humans. Certain biotechnological processes (baking, winemaking) have been known since ancient times. But biotechnology achieved its greatest success in the second half of the 20th century and is becoming increasingly important for human civilization.

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Structure of modern biotechnology
Modern biotechnology includes a number of high technologies that are based on the latest achievements in ecology, genetics, microbiology, cytology, and molecular biology. Modern biotechnology uses biological systems of all levels: from molecular genetic to biogeocenotic (biosphere); in this case, fundamentally new biological systems are created that are not found in nature. Biological systems used in biotechnology, together with non-biological components (technological equipment, materials, energy supply systems, control and management) are conveniently called working systems.

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Biotechnology and its role in practical human activities
The peculiarity of biotechnology is that it combines the most advanced achievements of scientific and technological progress with the accumulated experience of the past, expressed in the use of natural sources to create products useful for humans. Any biotechnological process includes a number of stages: preparation of the object, its cultivation, isolation, purification, modification and use of the resulting products. The multi-stage and complexity of the process necessitates the involvement of a variety of specialists in its implementation: geneticists and molecular biologists, cytologists, biochemists, virologists, microbiologists and physiologists, process engineers, and biotechnological equipment designers.

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Biotechnology
Crop production
Livestock
Medicine
Genetic Engineering

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Method: tissue culture
The method of vegetative propagation of agricultural plants by tissue culture is being increasingly used on an industrial basis. It allows not only to quickly propagate new promising plant varieties, but also to obtain planting material that is not infected with viruses.

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Biotechnology in animal husbandry
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in earthworms as a source of animal protein to balance the feed diet of animals, birds, fish, fur-bearing animals, as well as a protein supplement with therapeutic and prophylactic properties. To increase animal productivity, complete feed is needed. The microbiological industry produces feed protein based on various microorganisms - bacteria, fungi, yeast, algae. As industrial tests have shown, the protein-rich biomass of single-celled organisms is absorbed with high efficiency by farm animals. Thus, 1 ton of feed yeast allows you to save 5-7 tons of grain. This is significant because 80% of the world's agricultural land is devoted to livestock and poultry feed production.

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Cloning
The cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1996 by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh caused a stir around the world. Dolly was conceived from the mammary gland of a sheep that had long since died, and its cells were stored in liquid nitrogen. The technique by which Dolly was created is known as nuclear transfer, which means that the nucleus of an unfertilized egg is removed and a nucleus from a somatic cell is placed in its place.

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Cloning Dolly the Sheep

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New discoveries in the field of medicine
The successes of biotechnology are especially widely used in medicine. Currently, antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids, and hormones are produced using biosynthesis. For example, hormones used to be typically obtained from animal organs and tissues. Even to obtain a small amount of a medicinal drug, a lot of starting material was required. Consequently, it was difficult to obtain the required amount of the drug and it was very expensive. Thus, insulin, a hormone of the pancreas, is the main treatment for diabetes mellitus. This hormone must be administered to patients constantly. Producing it from the pancreas of a pig or cattle is difficult and expensive. In addition, animal insulin molecules differ from human insulin molecules, which often caused allergic reactions, especially in children. Currently, the biochemical production of human insulin has been established. A gene that synthesizes insulin was obtained. Using genetic engineering, this gene was introduced into a bacterial cell, which as a result acquired the ability to synthesize human insulin. In addition to obtaining therapeutic agents, biotechnology allows for early diagnosis of infectious diseases and malignant neoplasms based on the use of antigen preparations and DNA/RNA samples. With the help of new vaccine preparations it is possible to prevent infectious diseases.

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Biotechnology in medicine

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Stem cell method: cures or cripples?
Japanese scientists led by Professor Shinya Yamanaka from Kyoto University for the first time isolated stem cells from human skin, having previously introduced a set of certain genes into them. In their opinion, this can serve as an alternative to cloning and will make it possible to create drugs comparable to those obtained by cloning human embryos. American scientists almost simultaneously obtained similar results. But this does not mean that in a few months it will be possible to completely abandon embryo cloning and restore the body’s functionality using stem cells obtained from the patient’s skin. First, specialists will have to make sure that the “skin” table cells are actually as multifunctional as they seem, that they can be implanted into various organs without fear for the patient’s health, and that they will work.
The main concern is that such cells pose a risk for cancer development. Because the main danger of embryonic stem cells is that they are genetically unstable and have the ability to develop into some tumors after transplantation into the body

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Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering techniques make it possible to isolate the necessary gene and introduce it into a new genetic environment in order to create an organism with new, predetermined characteristics. Genetic engineering methods remain very complex and expensive. But already now, with their help, industry produces such important medications as interferon, growth hormones, insulin, etc. Selection of microorganisms is the most important area in biotechnology. The development of bionics makes it possible to effectively apply biological methods to solve engineering problems and to use the experience of living nature in various fields of technology.

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Transgenic products: pros and cons?
Several dozen edible transgenic plants have already been registered in the world. These are varieties of soybeans, rice and sugar beets that are resistant to herbicides; herbicide- and pest-resistant corn; potatoes resistant to the Colorado potato beetle; zucchini, almost seedless; tomatoes, bananas and melons with extended shelf life; rapeseed and soybean with modified fatty acid composition; rice with a high content of vitamin A. Genetically modified sources can be found in sausage, frankfurters, canned meat, dumplings, cheese, yogurt, baby food, cereals, chocolate, and ice cream candies.

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Prospects for the development of biotechnology
The method of vegetative propagation of agricultural plants by tissue culture is being increasingly used on an industrial basis. It allows not only to quickly propagate new promising plant varieties, but also to obtain virus-free planting material. Biotechnology makes it possible to obtain environmentally friendly fuels through the bioprocessing of industrial and agricultural waste. For example, installations have been created that use bacteria to process manure and other organic waste.

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Having been a direct result of scientific developments, biotechnology turns out to be a direct unity of science and production, another step towards the unity of cognition and action, another step that brings a person closer to overcoming external and to comprehending internal expediency.

Today, people widely use biotechnology: this is how bacteria were created that are used in wastewater treatment; bacteria that break down oil in oil spills; biotechnologies are widely used in medicine: antibiotics of various spectrums of action have been created and are being created; various hormones are synthesized: for example, growth hormone; insulin.

Genetic engineering is the artificial transfer of necessary genes from one type of living organism (bacteria, animals, plants) to another species to create an organism with the necessary properties. Convenient objects of genetic engineering are most often microorganisms (bacteria).

LIST OF COMPANIES THAT USE GMOs IN PRODUCTS Coca-Cola (Coca-Cola) Nestle (Nestlé) - everyone knows, but especially baby food!!! Kelloggs - ready-made breakfasts and corn flakes Heinz Foods - sauces, ketchups Unilever - baby food!!! Mayonnaise, sauces Hersheys (Hersheys) - chocolate, soft drinks McDonalds (McDonald's) PepsiCo (Pepsi-Cola) Danon (Danone) - fermented milk products Cadbury (Cadbury) - chocolate. Similac (Similac) - baby food Mars (Mars) - Mars, Snickers, Twix. In addition, if you see E101, 270, 320, 570 and others on the label, then know that this is GMO.

Arguments for GMOs: 1. Solution to the food problem. 2. The development of GM technologies is in demand in medicine, where their achievements have been successfully applied for a long time. 3. The risks from consuming GMO food products are minimal (foreign protein decomposes like normal protein) 4. The appearance of properties in agricultural plants that provide protection from spoilage and pests reduces the need for the use of agricultural chemicals, the harm of which has been proven. 5. GM technologies in their results do not differ from mutations that constantly occur in living nature, and from the technology of classical selection - and in their structure, but they are more gentle for the plant being improved. 6. GMOs make it possible to create biofuels, which leads to energy savings.

Arguments against GMOs: Threat to the human body - allergic diseases, metabolic disorders, the appearance of gastric microflora resistant to antibiotics, carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. Threat to the environment - the appearance of vegetative weeds, contamination of research sites, etc. Global risks - activation of critical viruses, economic security.

Cloning is the creation of multiple genetic copies of one individual through asexual reproduction. The first successful cloning experiment was carried out in the late 60s. In the 20th century at Oxford University, Gurdon, using a frog, proved that the information contained in the nucleus of any cell is sufficient for the development of a full-fledged organism. In 1996, Dolly the sheep was cloned from a mammary epithelial cell in Scotland. (Fig. 94, p. 187).

There are ethical aspects to the development of biotechnology! The active introduction of biotechnology into medicine and human genetics has led to the emergence of a special science of bioethics. Bioethics is the science of ethical treatment of all living things, including humans. In 1996, the Council of Europe adopted the Convention on Human Rights in the Use of Genomic Technologies in Medicine. Any change in the human genome can only be carried out on somatic cells.

Future prospects. Today there are already known examples of implanting microchips into the human body, cloning of human organs is under development, in addition, there are special suits that help paralyzed people move, but they are still at the testing stage. In addition to technologies for the human body, biotechnologists are developing ways to increase the amount of protein in plants, which will make it possible to eliminate meat in the future. In medicine, vaccines are being developed against known diseases, and the area of ​​human cellular rejuvenation is also being explored, which will slow down aging. In the industrial sector, biotechnology is used to produce biofuels and biogas, which will reduce environmental pollution and reduce the use of natural resources.

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Presentation on the topic: Biotechnology

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Biotechnology BIOTECHNOLOGY is the industrial use of biological agents (microorganisms, plant cells, animal cells, cell parts: cell membranes, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts) to obtain valuable products and carry out targeted transformations. Biotechnological processes also use biological macromolecules such as ribonucleic acids (DNA, RNA), proteins - most often enzymes. DNA or RNA is necessary for the transfer of foreign genes into cells.

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History of Biotechnology People have acted as biotechnologists for thousands of years: they baked bread, brewed beer, made cheese, and other lactic acid products, using various microorganisms and without even knowing about their existence. Actually, the term “biotechnology” itself appeared in our language not so long ago; instead, the words “industrial microbiology”, “technical biochemistry”, etc. were used. Probably the oldest biotechnological process was fermentation. During excavations in Babylon, on a tablet that dates back to approximately the 6th millennium BC. e. In the 3rd millennium BC. e. The Sumerians produced up to two dozen types of beer. No less ancient biotechnological processes are winemaking, bread baking and the production of lactic acid products. In the traditional, classical sense, biotechnology is the science of methods and technologies for the production of various substances and products using natural biological objects and processes.

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Introduction: An important part of biotechnology is genetic engineering. Born in the early 70s, she has achieved great success today. Genetic engineering techniques transform bacterial, yeast and mammalian cells into “factories” for the large-scale production of any protein. This makes it possible to analyze in detail the structure and functions of proteins and use them as medicines.

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The main tasks of genetic engineering: 1. Obtaining an isolated gene. 2. Introduction of the gene into a vector for transfer into the body. 3. Transfer of the vector with the gene into the modified organism. 4. Transformation of body cells. 5. Selection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified.

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The concept of genetic engineering Genetic engineering (genetic engineering) is a set of techniques, methods and technologies for obtaining recombinant RNA and DNA, isolating genes from an organism (cells), manipulating genes and introducing them into other organisms. Genetic engineering is not a science in the broad sense, but is a tool of biotechnology, using methods of biological sciences such as molecular and cellular biology, cytology, genetics, microbiology, virology.

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Development In the second half of the twentieth century, several important discoveries and inventions were made that underlie genetic engineering. Many years of attempts to “read” the biological information that is “written” in genes have been successfully completed. This work was started by the English scientist F. Sanger and the American scientist W. Gilbert (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980). As is known, genes contain information-instructions for the synthesis of RNA molecules and proteins, including enzymes, in the body. To force a cell to synthesize new substances that are unusual for it, it is necessary that the corresponding sets of enzymes be synthesized in it. And for this it is necessary to either purposefully change the genes located in it, or introduce new, previously absent genes into it. Changes in genes in living cells are mutations. They occur under the influence, for example, of mutagens - chemical poisons or radiation. But such changes cannot be controlled or directed. Therefore, scientists have focused their efforts on trying to develop methods for introducing new, very specific genes needed by humans into cells.

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Human Genetic Engineering When applied to humans, genetic engineering could be used to treat inherited diseases. However, technically, there is a significant difference between treating the patient himself and changing the genome of his descendants. Although on a small scale, genetic engineering is already being used to give women with some types of infertility a chance to get pregnant. For this purpose, eggs from a healthy woman are used. As a result, the child inherits the genotype from one father and two mothers. With the help of genetic engineering, it is possible to obtain offspring with improved appearance, mental and physical abilities, character and behavior. With the help of gene therapy, it is possible in the future to improve the genome of living people. In principle, it is possible to create more serious changes, but on the path of such transformations, humanity needs to solve many ethical problems.

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Economic significance Genetic engineering serves to obtain the desired qualities of a modified or genetically modified organism. Unlike traditional selection, during which the genotype is subject to changes only indirectly, genetic engineering allows direct intervention in the genetic apparatus using the technique of molecular cloning. Examples of applications of genetic engineering include the production of new genetically modified varieties of grain crops, the production of human insulin using genetically modified bacteria, the production of erythropoietin in cell culture or new breeds of experimental mice for scientific research.

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Gene knockout To study the function of a particular gene, gene knockout can be used. This is the name for the technique of removing one or more genes, which allows one to study the consequences of such a mutation. For knockout, the same gene or its fragment is synthesized, modified so that the gene product loses its function. To produce knockout mice, the resulting genetically engineered construct is introduced into embryonic stem cells, where the construct undergoes somatic recombination and replaces the normal gene, and the altered cells are implanted into the blastocysts of the surrogate mother. In the fruit fly Drosophila, mutations are initiated in a large population, from which offspring with the desired mutation are then searched. In a similar way, knockouts are obtained in plants and microorganisms.

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Artificial expression A logical addition to knockout is artificial expression, that is, adding a gene to the body that it did not previously have. This genetic engineering technique can also be used to study gene function. In essence, the process of introducing additional genes is the same as for knockout, but existing genes are not replaced or damaged.

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Visualization of gene products Used when the task is to study the localization of a gene product. One of the tagging methods is to replace the normal gene with one fused with a reporter element, for example, with the green fluorescent protein gene. This protein, which fluoresces in blue light, is used to visualize the product of genetic modification. Although this technique is convenient and useful, its side effects may be partial or complete loss of function of the protein of interest. A more sophisticated, although not so convenient, method is to add smaller oligopeptides to the protein being studied, which can be detected using specific antibodies.

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Study of the mechanism of expression In such experiments, the task is to study the conditions of gene expression. Expression features depend primarily on a small piece of DNA located in front of the coding region, called a promoter, which serves to bind transcription factors. This section is introduced into the body, followed by a reporter gene, for example, GFP or an enzyme that catalyzes an easily detectable reaction, instead of its own gene. In addition to the fact that the functioning of the promoter in certain tissues at one time or another becomes clearly visible, such experiments make it possible to study the structure of the promoter by removing or adding DNA fragments to it, as well as artificially enhancing its functions.

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Biotechnology

Microbiological synthesis The use of microorganisms to obtain a number of substances. Strains of microorganisms are created that produce the necessary substances in quantities that significantly exceed the needs of the microorganisms themselves by tens and hundreds of times.

Examples: Bacteria capable of accumulating uranium, copper, and cobalt are used to extract metals from wastewater. With the help of bacteria, biogas (a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide) is produced, which is used to heat rooms. It was possible to breed microorganisms that synthesize the amino acid lysine, which is not produced in the human body.

Examples: Yeast is used to obtain feed protein. Using 1 ton of feed protein for livestock feed saves 5–8 tons of grain. The addition of 1 ton of yeast biomass to the diet of birds helps to obtain an additional 1.5 - 2 tons of meat or 25 - 35 thousand eggs.

Cellular engineering Growing cells of higher organisms on nutrient media. Growing nuclear-free cells. Transplantation of nuclei from one cell to another. Growing an entire organism from one somatic cell. Cloning

Cloning Animal cloning is achieved by transferring the nucleus from a differentiated cell into an unfertilized egg that has had its own nucleus removed.

Cloning The first successful experiments in cloning animals were carried out in the mid-1970s by the English embryologist J. Gordon in experiments on amphibians, when replacing the nucleus of an egg with a nucleus from a somatic cell of an adult frog led to the appearance of a tadpole.

Cloning Cloned animal – Dolly the sheep

Cellular engineering Hybridization of somatic cells and creation of interspecific hybrids. It is possible to obtain hybrid cells of organisms that are unrelated to each other: Human and mouse; Plants and animals; Cancer cells capable of unlimited growth, and blood cells - lymphocytes. It is possible to obtain a medicine that increases a person’s resistance to infections.

Examples: Thanks to the hybridization method, hybrids of various varieties of potatoes, cabbage, and tomatoes were obtained. From one somatic cell of a plant it is possible to grow a whole organism and thus propagate valuable varieties (for example, ginseng). Clones are obtained - genetically homogeneous cells. Production of chimeric organisms.

Chimeric mice

Chimera sheep - goat

Genetic engineering Rearrangement of genotypes of organisms: Creation of effective genes artificially. Introduction of a gene from one organism into the genotype of another is the production of transgenic organisms.

Introducing the rat growth gene into mouse DNA

Result

Examples: The gene responsible for the production of insulin in humans was introduced into the genotype of Escherichia coli. This bacterium is administered to people with diabetes.

A gene was introduced into the genotype of the petunia plant that disrupts the formation and production of pigment. This is how a plant with white flowers was created

Examples: Scientists are trying to introduce into the genotype of cereals the gene of bacteria that absorb nitrogen from the air. Then it will become possible not to add nitrogen fertilizers to the soil.

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