Lexicology scientists. Lexicology as a branch of the science of language Lexicology (gr. lexikos - related to tin, logos - teaching) is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. General principles and provisions of the methodology for teaching lexis

The term "lexicology" is composed of two Greek elements: lexis (lexis) and logos (logos). Both of these meant "word" in ancient Greek. Thus, lexicology is a word about a word, or a science about words. The vocabulary of a language is a collection of all words and their equivalent phrases (phraseological units).

Sections of lexicology

1. Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.

2. Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, semantic structure of a lexeme.

3. Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

4. Onomastics - the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

5. Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

6. Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries.

7. The word is at the center of the study of lexicology.

lexeme

Having become acquainted with the types of words presented in the language, one can introduce another concept presented in lexicology, namely, the concept of a lexical word, or lexeme. A lexeme is a significant word that points to objects and denotes concepts about them. A lexeme is able to act as a member of a sentence and form sentences, it can be simple (lexeme - a word) and compound (lexeme - a compound name, for example: railway, rest house) In this understanding, service words and word forms are not included in the concept of "lexeme".

How do the terms lexeme and word relate?

In some cases, they denote the same fact of language. So a person is both a word and a lexeme; in, would. From are words, but not lexemes. In the sentence "Man is friend to man" there are three words, but two lexemes. Therefore, the term lexeme diverges from the term word. The latter names both the function word and the form of the word. Word forms that differ only in grammatical meaning are not considered separate lexemes (kot - kota - kotu - kotom). They form a paradigm, that is, a system of word forms of one lexeme.

The lexical meaning of a word is the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and fixing in it the idea of ​​an object, a property of a process, a phenomenon, and so on. This is the correlation established by our thinking between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, which is indicated by this complex of sounds.

The carrier of lexical meaning is the basis of the word. The meaning of the word reflects the general and at the same time essential features of the subject, learned as a result of people's social practice. Lexical meanings can be specific and abstract, general (common) and singular (own).

Word problems in language

Shcherba wrote in one of his last articles: "Really, what is a word? I think that it will be different in different languages. It follows from this that the concept of a word does not exist at all."

Smirnitsky, who in his article "On the Question of the Word", writes that "the word acts not only as the basic unit of the vocabulary, but also as the central nodal unit of the language in general" illuminates this issue differently. When presenting the material on words, we will adhere to this point of view.

The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary (M., 1990) gives the following definition of the concept of a word:

The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to a given language.

The most important features of the word

The word, like any other unit of language, according to Smirnitsky, has two important features:

1) It has not only an external (sound) side, but also an externally expressed meaning (semantic or emotional content).

Considering the question of the two-sidedness of a word, one should dwell on the very nature of this connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.

The connection between the sound and meaning of a word is, in principle, conditional, arbitrary, or unmotivated. So, for example, there is no inherently binding connection between the meaning of table and the sound of Tisch. As you know, different sound complexes are associated with the meaning of table in different languages: in English. table, in Russian. Table, in it. Tisch. The principle of convention applies to simple, indecomposable units; completely, actually to morphemes.

As for more complex formations, in addition to the principle of convention (since simple units are included in complex formations), the principle of motivation comes first. The concept of motivation is related to the term "internal form of the word", which is understood as the motivation of the lexical meaning of the word by its word-formation with the semantic structure. The internal form of the word reveals some sign of the object on the basis of which the name originated. So, for example, the redstart bird once struck a person with its unusually bright, as if burning, tail. This sign that struck a person was the basis for the name of this bird. Of course, the sign that underlies the name is not always so bright and spectacular. It is usually much calmer: a candlestick is what is under the candle, and a thimble is what is put on the finger - a finger, a snowdrop, a flower that appears in the spring, when there is still snow on the fields.

2) The word appears not as a work created in the process of speech, but as something that already exists and is only reproduced in speech.

By the way, morphemes also satisfy the above requirements, and therefore can be considered units of the language with good reason. It should also be noted that proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, and generally various sayings, reproduced again and again as whole units, also act, according to Smirnitsky, as units of the language, since they already exist in the language and are only reproduced in speech. But then the sentence is not, according to Smirnitsky, a unit of language.

It is necessary to dwell on the issue of the separability of a word in the flow of speech. In certain cases, certain phonetic moments serve to highlight a word, to distinguish it from neighboring words. So, for example, the absence of stress on a full-valued unit that has a substantive meaning in Germanic languages ​​is usually an indicator that we are dealing with only a part of the word, for example. English Railway, blackboard, German. Eisenbahn, Schwarzbrot, where the absence of stress on -way, -board, -bahn, -brot shows that these units in these cases do not represent separate words, but are only components of words. Such phonetic moments, capable of expressing the difference between a word and a part of a word, should be considered only as some additional, auxiliary means of highlighting a word. Why? The fact is that with such a selection, the word is considered as if it were only a sound segment. Meanwhile, the word, as a unit of language, is a formation that has both a sound side and a semantic side. The main signs of separability, completeness of the word should be sought based on the understanding of the word as the main unit of the vocabulary of the language and, at the same time, such a unit that is able to change grammatically and grammatically combine into sentences, into a coherent meaningful speech with other units of the same order.

The changeability of a word presupposes a certain form of its formation: since the same word changes, insofar as it stands out something basic, actually dictionary, lexical, which remains the same with various changes in the word, and, on the other hand, something additional, variable, belonging together with that, not to a given specific word, but to a known class or category of words, abstracted from specific words - grammatical, associated with the use of a word in various works of speech. Thus, the basic, lexical meaning of the word turns out to be supplemented, complicated by those or other grammatical meanings that are materially expressed in external, sound differences between individual varieties - grammatical forms of the word: this gives the word a certain formality.

Words turn out to be grammatically, both morphologically and syntactically designed, in a certain way adapted to their joint functioning in coherent meaningful speech. This formalization of the word gives it a certain completeness, which makes it quite easy to distinguish it from speech.

The internal integrity of the word (whole-formation) of the word is revealed in comparison with the structure of the phrase. Unlike words as whole-formed formations, phrases can be defined as separate-formed formations. This can be illustrated by the following examples. If we compare the language formation das Schwarzbrot and the language formation das schwarze Brot, which includes the same root elements as the first formation, then it is easy to see that they, denoting the same object of objective reality and not significantly differing in their meaning, are fundamentally different. in their relation to the grammatical structure, in their form. This difference lies in the fact that in the first language formation - the word - both components are formed once, while in the second language formation - the phrase - there is an independent grammatical design for each component. In other words, the formation Schwarzbrot is integrally formed, and the formation das schwarze Brot is separately formed.

The wholeness of the word in itself expresses a certain semantic integrity: it emphasizes that a given object or phenomenon is thought of as something one, a special whole, even if the complexity of its structure is noted or its individual features are distinguished. Thus, when we say das Schwarzbrot, we focus on the object denoted by this word, although we mean its individual aspects: a) bread, a food product, and b) the quality of this product in terms of color. On the contrary, if we say das schwarze Brot, separate aspects of the designated phenomenon come to the fore, and already through the perception of certain aspects of this object or phenomenon, the object itself or the phenomenon as a whole is realized.

Semantic structure of the word- the semantic structure of the main unit of vocabulary (see Word). S. s. from. manifests itself in its polysemy (see) as the ability to name (designate) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states) with the help of internally related meanings. The semantic structure of an unambiguous word is reduced to its seme composition (see Seme) .

The simplest unit (element) of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is its lexico-semantic variant (LSV), that is, with a lexical meaning (see), associated with other lexical meanings by certain relationships, the main of which are hierarchical: expression of subordination of dependent lexical meaning from the south to the main. In S. with. from. lexico-semantic variants are related to each other due to the common internal form (see Internal form of the word), their mutual motivation, derivation from each other.

Therefore, in dictionaries, each preceding LSV determines the interpretation of the subsequent one, for example. circle ^ "a part of the pchoskosg, bounded by a circle, as well as the circle itself" ~ ^- circle ± "an object in the shape of a circle" (saving. rubber circle), [circle-) "a closed area, within the outlined boundaries, a cut and a difference occur something" (circle of responsibilities, interests, issues)], [circle "a group of people united by common interests, took off" (circle of acquaintances, friends; in their own circle)], [circle $ "a social set of people primarily engaged in intellectual, creative work "(general circles of the public, literary, journalistic circles; about diplomatic circles: in the circle of scientists, specialists)], etc. Here, the hierarchically main LSV is a circle, in the content of which the internal form is most manifested; with this LSV, all other LSVs of the word circle are metaphorically (according to the similarity of form). At<ггом представление о круге присутствует в толковании значений всех ЛСВ слова и внутренне связывает их в единое целое. Основанием для выделения главного и частных значений (или иначе: главного и частных ЛСВ) служит различный характер взаимодействия слова в таких значениях с контекстом, т. е. фрагментом текста, необходимым и достаточным для определения того или иного значения слова. Главное значение в наименьшей степени обусловлено контекстом. Слово в главном (первом в словарях) значении является семантически наиболее простым по своему содержанию (ср. вода\ "прозрачная бесцветная жидкость") и обладает в силу этого самой широкой н свободной сочетаемостью с другими лексическими единицами. Все прочие значения слова (его ЛСВ) выступают как частные. В частных значениях по сравнению с главным слово в значительно большей степени обусловлено контекстом, присоединяет к себе его элементы и является в силу этого семантически более сложным (напр., вода2 "минеральный, газированный, фруктовый напиток", т. е. вода+содержащая минеральные соли; насыщенная газом; приготовленная из фруктов), при атом характеризуется ограниченной, избирательной сочетаемостью: минеральная, сельтерская, газированная, фруктовая вода.

The main meaning is called the primary semantic function of the word, particular meanings - its secondary semantic functions.

Along with the usual dictionary meanings (main, private) in S. s. from. the general meaning is singled out as its invariant (from Latin invarians - unchanging), opposed to variant meanings: this is the coinciding part of the content of all meanings (LSV) of the word, something constant, unchanging in them. It stands out like a common factor in algebra: ab + ac + ad = = a(b + c + d), is an extremely generalized and semantically simple content and is a linguistic abstraction useful for the semantic analysis of language units. The ratio of the meanings of a word to its general meaning [i.e. i.e. to the general content of all its variants] makes it possible to establish their semantic hierarchy according to the degree of proximity to it: the central, dominant meanings turn out to be semantically the simplest, the peripheral ones are more complex and therefore further separated from the general (invariant) meaning of the word than the first ones. In S. with. from. certain values ​​(LSV) can die off. For example, the meaning of "beautiful" in the common Slavic adjective red (cf. Red Square) was historically the original, the main one in the word formed from the same stem as the word beauty. In the meaning of color, the word red began to be used later, in the era of the separate existence of the East Slavs. languages. This value became the main thing in S. with. s, leading to its partial restructuring. However, S. s. from. is constantly enriched with new meanings, since the word is a unit of an “open” lexical system, for example. meanings "a person who swims in open water in winter" in the word walrus (cf. section of walruses), "successful attacking player in football, hockey" in the word scorer (cf. top scorer of the season), etc.

All words are divided into word-building motivated (derivatives) and unmotivated (non-derivatives).). Word-building motivated are such words, the meaning and sound of which are determined in the modern language by other words of the same root (motivating, or producing). Motivated words are perceived as formed from motivating words: table - table 'small table', white - turn white 'become white, whiter'. The meaning and sound of derivational unmotivated words (table, white) are not conditioned in the modern language by other words with the same root; they are not recognized as being formed from other words.

A motivated word is connected with another single-rooted word or with several single-rooted words by the relations of derivational motivation. Motivation is such a relationship between two words with the same root, in which the meaning of one of them is either determined through the meaning of the other (house - house 'little house', strength - strongman 'man of great physical strength'), or identical to the meaning of the other in all its components, except for the grammatical meaning of a part of speech (walking - walking, daring - daring, bold - boldly), or completely identical to the meaning of another with a difference in the stylistic coloring of these words (knee - open knee).

Words with the same root, devoid of the named properties (house and house), are not in a relationship of motivation with each other.

One of the two words with the same root, connected by relations of word-formation motivation, is motivating, and the other is motivated. The motivation of a word is determined by four rules that apply in the following cases:

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and in their stems, in addition to the root, a different number of sound segments is singled out (the stem of one of them may be equal to the root). In this case, a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some sound segment, which is recognized as a word-forming affixal morph (see § 16): forest - forest-ok, stand - stand.

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and the same number of sound segments is singled out in their stems. In this case, the motivated word is semantically more complex, the meaning of which is determined through another word compared with it: chemistry - chemist ‘specialist in chemistry’, artist - artist ‘woman artist’.

The meanings of the compared single-root words are identical in all their components, except for the grammatical meaning of the part of speech. In this case: a) in the pairs “verb - noun denoting the same action” (draw - drawing, go out - exit, creak - creak) and “adjective - noun denoting the same sign” (bold - courage, graceful - grace , blue - blue), regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the noun is motivated; b) in the pair "adjective - adverb" a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some segment - a word-forming affixal morph (see paragraph 1): cf. today - today-sh-th and dare-th - dare-o, where -o is part of the stem (suffix).

Note. An exception to the rule formulated in paragraph 3a are: 1) pairs of words consisting of a noun that does not have a suffix with the meaning of action, and a verb with the suffix -nicha-, -stova-, or -ova-/-irova-/- izirova-/-izova-: in such pairs, the verb is motivated, because in the modern language, with the help of these suffixes, verbs from nouns with the meaning of action are easily formed, and nouns with the meaning of action are not formed from such verbs without the help of a suffix: focus - conjurer, blasphemy - blaspheme, salute - salute, repair - repair, terror - terrorize; 2) pairs consisting of a noun on -stv (o) and an adjective, in which after -stv- follows a suffix: courage - courageous, ignorance - ignorant.

One of the words in the relationship of motivation is stylistically neutral, and the other has some stylistic coloring. In this case, regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the stylistically colored word is motivated: ship - shipbuilder (colloquial), individual - individual (colloquial).

A motivated word differs from a motivating word by certain derivational means. As word-building means for motivation, affixal morphs (most often) act, as well as cutting off part of the stem, a fixed order of components, and a single stress on one of the components in additions and unions (for more details, see § 31).

This article will focus on lexicology. What it studies, what it is, what sections it is divided into and what modes of action it has, we will consider here.

Introduction

Lexicology is a linguistic branch that studies vocabulary. We learned what lexicology studies, and now we will get acquainted with its general and particular parts. The latter is busy studying the lexical composition of a certain language. This science turned its attention to:

  • the word and its meaning;
  • word relationship system;
  • historical facts, through which the vocabulary was formed in the modern sense;
  • the existing difference of words according to the functional and stylistic character in various speech spheres.

Object and subject

The word serves as the object that lexicology studies. Another object of study is word formation and morphology. However, if in these branches of science the word is a means by which the grammatical structure and word-formation model, as well as language rules are studied, then in the science of lexicology the word is studied in order to understand the meaning of the word itself and the language vocabulary. It does not study individual linguistic units of oral speech, but, directly, the entire language system.

What does lexicology study in Russian? First of all, she is busy with the consideration of the Russian and Slavic languages, which had an active development in the course of historical events.

The subject of lexicology is

  • The word, as part of the language, considered with the help of the theory of the word.
  • The structure of the linguistic composition of words.
  • Functionality of a lexical unit.
  • Possible ways of replenishing the linguistic composition.
  • Relationship with an extralinguistic type of activity, for example, with culture.

Main sections

Lexicology is a science that studies vocabulary, its basis. Science is quite extensive and has many sections, including:

  • onomasiology - a section on the process of naming objects;
  • semasiology - a section that studies the word and phrases, namely their meaning;
  • phraseology - studies the vocabulary relationship between each other, and among themselves;
  • onomastics - busy with the study of existing names;
  • etymology - a section that drew attention to the historical origin of the word, also considers the abundance of vocabulary in general;
  • lexicography - focused on the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries;
  • stylistics is a section that studies the meaning of sayings and words of a connotative type.

common data

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, and the number of words in it cannot be counted. One, only seventeen-volume collection of the Dictionary of Modern R.Ya. includes more than 130,000 words, and the Oxford Dictionary contains over 300,000 words.

Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary of a language, which also includes obscure units of speech, such as agnonyms, which refer to words with an incomprehensible meaning.

Speech units that are used frequently are part of the language's active vocabulary. There are frequency dictionaries with which you can determine frequently used words. However, there is the concept of a passive dictionary, which includes language elements that carry information about something, but are used relatively rarely. Such words belong to a limitedly used vocabulary - a dialect, professional or slang word.

Replenishment of the vocabulary

We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will turn our attention to the ways in which the vocabulary is replenished.

The phenomenon of borrowing vocabulary from the languages ​​of other peoples is one of the main such ways. Taken long ago, foreign words are now considered native Russian. However, very often this is not the case, an example of this is the unit of speech - bread, which came into the Russian language from German. Due to borrowing, the original meaning of the word may change.

Another way of enriching lexical components is the formation of a new series of words. Such components of speech are called neologisms.

The further development of the fate of new words can be varied: some lose their novelty and become fixed among other elements of the language, others can be considered new formations created by an individual author (occasionalisms). The expansion of the boundaries of vocabulary also occurs due to the development of a new range of meanings for words that have been known for a long time and well.

Words that have sunk into oblivion

Lexicology studies words, among which obsolete units of the language are also considered. Due to the influence of time on the word, by the way, it goes out of use. This can be observed, for example, with the disappearance of an object or phenomenon that was often used before. These words are called historicisms. The disappearance of such a word also leads to the loss of the realities that it carries in itself, however, sometimes the realities themselves do not disappear, but are renamed and called archaisms.

Vocabulary - as a mobile type system

Vocabulary is like a system capable of promotion. This allows us to determine that words have a variety of relationships with each other for various semantic reasons. Such words include synonyms - speech units that have a difference in form, but are close to each other in meaning.

There are words that are interconnected by the presence of a common cause in the opposite meaning - antonyms. They point to opposite "things". The opposite meaning of one speech unit is called enantiosemy. An example would be the phrases: "listen" in the sense of the phrase "listen carefully", and in the sense of "leave a deaf ear".

The connection of words can be expressed in the form. Almost every language carries words that have an external identity, can have different meanings. An example is the variety of meanings of the word - braid, which can be both an agricultural tool and a braid of hair. These types of words are called homonyms.

Homonyms, in turn, include different types of differences of the same character. If language units coincide in the “form” of sounding only if there are separate reasons, then such words are called homoforms. Words that coincide in spelling but differ in sound led to the creation of the term - homograph. If the pronunciation is the same, but the spelling is different, then this word is called a homophone.

Paronyms include similar words, but having a difference in identity according to the characterized parameters of form and meaning. They also perfectly show us the essence of the formal form of communication.

There is a concept of interlingual homonyms and paronyms. Such words have a formal similarity, but in different languages ​​they can have many meanings. They are called "false friends of translators".

Lexical units

Lexicology, as a branch of linguistics, studies the vocabulary components of any language, and knows that they have a huge variety and heterogeneity. There are categories that have been singled out due to the presence in them of special distinctive outlines. In the lexicology of the Russian language, the following set of subspecies is foreseen:

  • according to the areas of application, they are divided into: the commonly used type of words and units of vocabulary, which are used in the event of a confluence of special circumstances in science, poetry, vernacular, dialect, etc .;
  • by the value of the emotional load, which include units of speech, colored by emotional or neutral "color";
  • in accordance with historical development, divided into archaisms and neologisms;
  • according to the history of origin and development, divided into internationalism, borrowing, etc.;
  • in accordance with the functionality - vocabulary units of active and passive type;

Given the continuous development of languages, what lexicology considers includes insurmountable boundaries of study, constantly expanding and changing.

Lexical problems

In this science there is a concept of some problems, the study of which it is busy. Among them are:

  1. Structural issues that decide the form of perception of the word, the structural basis of its elements.
  2. A semantic problem occupied by the study of the question of the meaning of a lexical unit.
  3. Functional problems of the general system of language, investigating the role of words and speech units in the language itself.

Speaking about the first problem, and the aspect of development, we can summarize that this science is busy establishing specific criteria by which it is possible to determine the differences and the identity of a separate series of words. To avoid this, a lexical unit is compared with a phrase, while a structure for analysis is developed that allows one to establish the invariance of words.

The semantic problem expresses itself as a question of semasiology - a science that studies the relationship between words and specific objects. In lexicology, this is one of the extremely important objects of study. Its study is focused on the meaning of the word, its individual categories and types, which make it possible to create terms: monosymy (uniqueness) and polysymmy (polysemy). Lexicology tries to explore cause-and-effect relationships that lead to losses or the emergence of new meanings for words.

The functional problem tries to study a lexical unit, in the form of an object, which is associated with another similar element and creates a complete language system. In this understanding, the role of the interaction of grammar with vocabulary is considered extremely important. They can both support and limit each other.

conclusions

We have determined that lexicology studies the vocabulary of the language, its structure, disappearing units of speech, such as historicisms, for example, built an idea of ​​the meaning of words. Considered their types and variations, identified the problems of this science. Thanks to this, we can summarize that its importance cannot be overestimated, since it is extremely important for the general system of the language and tracking trends in its development.

“Lexicology as a branch of the science of language Lexicology (gr. lexikos - related to tin, logos - teaching) is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. ..."

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Lexicology as a branch of the science of language

Lexicology (gr. lexikos - related to tin, logos - teaching) is a branch of science

about the language, which studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary.

The vocabulary of a language is an internally organized set of lexical

units interconnected, functioning and developing according to their characteristic

Russian language laws.

Lexicology studies 1) the word as an individual unit of language, its meaning;

2) the place of the word in the lexical system of the language; 3) the history of the formation of modern vocabulary; 4) the relationship of the word to the active or passive vocabulary; 5) the place of the word in the system of functional styles of the modern Russian language (neutral, scientific, business, etc.). Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language in its temporal development, since various changes occur in the vocabulary of a language over time, and also reveals the causes of these changes.



Synchronic (descriptive) lexicology (gr. sin - together and chronos - time) the current state of the lexical system. Diachronic (historical) lexicology (gr. dia - through, through and chronos) studies vocabulary in a historical aspect.

One of the main sections of lexicology is semasiology (rp. stasia - meaning, logos - teaching), or semantics (gr. sta - sign), which studies all issues related to the meaning of a word, as well as changes in the meaning of a word. Onomasiology (gr.

o noma - name and logos) studies the principles and patterns of naming phenomena and objects; etymology (gr. etymon - truth and logos) - the origin of words and turns of speech; lexicography (gr. lexicon - dictionary and graph - I write) - compiling dictionaries. In a broad sense, lexicology also includes the doctrine of stable combinations of words - phraseology.

The word as a unit of the lexical system of the Russian language. Word functions (nominative, generalizing).

The word is the smallest unit of speech. It has an external form - a sound shell: a sound or a complex of sounds, designed according to the laws of a given language, and an internal content - a lexical meaning. The meaning (or semantics) of a word relates it to a certain concept. Consequently, a word is a complex of sounds or one sound that has a certain meaning fixed by the language practice of society. The meaning of the word must be universally recognized and obligatory for the members of this society, only in this case mutual understanding of people is possible.

The word is a unity of lexical and grammatical meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a meaning expressing the relation of a word to other words in a phrase and sentence: relation to a person, reality, time, reported, for example, the meaning of gender, number, case, person, time, etc. (cf. I draw - I will draw: time value).

The main function of the word is its: (According to Luria)

1) denoting (nominative) role. The word denotes an object, action, quality or relation. Thanks to this, the human world doubles, and he can deal with objects that are not directly perceived and are not part of his own sensory experience.

2) The word helps to analyze the properties of objects, introduces it into the system of connections and relationships.

Compare, for example, the word-formation analysis of a word, which establishes known connections between objects, phenomena:

Table - lay - capital - capital.

3) Each word enriches things, refers them to a certain category, being an instrument of abstraction, which is the most important operation of consciousness.

Polysemy (polysemy of a word). Words are single and multiple. Direct and figurative meaning of the word. Types of figurative meanings (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche) The meaning of a word can be direct and figurative. The direct meaning of a word is a lexical meaning in the proper sense, without emotionally expressive overlays, it is a direct nomination. A figurative meaning is a secondary, derivative, arising on the basis of the similarity of objects in shape, color, character, function performed, associations by adjacency: donkey - “animal” and “stubborn person”. The figurative meaning is always motivated.

The meaning of the word changes during the functioning of the word in speech: 1) the word acquires a new (or new) meaning: mouse (computer);

2) the meaning of the word is expanding: ace (initially only about the pilot, now about other masters, for example, an ace football player);



3) narrowing the meaning of the word: stink (original meaning - smell, now - bad smell).

According to the presence of meanings, words are divided into single-valued and multi-valued.

An unambiguous word (monosemic) has one meaning: taxi, typhoon, whirlwind, grasshopper, etc. Nouns (taiga), adjectives (potayay), verbs (uncork), adverbs (at the ready), etc. can be unambiguous. The polysemantic word (polysemic) has several meanings: stream - 1) “rapidly flowing water mass, river, stream”; 2) "in-line production"; 3) "a group of students with whom some classes are conducted in a known queue with the same, similar groups."

The ability of a word to have several meanings is called polysemy, or polysemy (gr. Poly smos - polysemantic). Despite the ambiguity, the word is a semantic unity, which is called the semantic structure of the word.

At the moment of occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. A prerequisite for the use of a word in a figurative sense is the similarity of phenomena or their contiguity, as a result of which all the meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected. There are two main types of figurative meaning of the word:

1) metaphorical transfer is carried out on the basis of the similarity of external features: in shape, location of objects, color, taste, as well as in the similarity of the functions of objects, etc. For example: caterpillar - 1) butterfly larva, usually worm-like with several pairs of legs; 2) a wide chain put on the wheels of a tractor, tank, etc. to increase the cross-country ability of the car;

2) metonymic transfer is the transfer of the name according to the contiguity of phenomena, their relationship (spatial, temporal, etc.): steel - 1) solid silvery metal; 2) steel products. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche - the transfer of meaning when the name of the whole is used to name a part of the whole, and vice versa:

All flags will visit us (A. Pushkin).

Formation of figurative meanings of words By the similarity of objects By adjacency (proximity) or phenomena of objects or phenomena in form: a spruce needle, a smoke ring according to the material of products from it:

by color: gold hair, emerald steel tinkled, silverware darkened grass by action: airplane wing by action and result: got five for the essay by impression: evil wind, in whole and in part: put black thoughts in a vase jasmine a quick look, by assessment : according to the personality of the author and his vague answer to the works: read Pushkin, bought by size: a sea of ​​​​flowers Tolstoy, saw Rembrandt head, etc.). New, unexpected variants of the use of words in a figurative sense are called individual-author's. Expressions based on the figurative meaning of words and giving figurativeness and expressiveness to speech are called tropes: The sunset splashed gray fields with liquid gilding (S. Yesenin) - a metaphor; ... a sickle and hammered Soviet passport (V. Mayakovsky) is an epithet.

Homonymy. Types of homonyms: homophones, homoforms, homographs.

Lexical homonyms (gr. homo s - the same, o puta - name) are words that have the same form (sound, spelling), but different meanings: pomegranate1 "southern tree, as well as its round fruit of sweet and sour taste"; garnet 2 "semi-precious stone, predominantly dark red".

Full lexical homonyms are words that coincide in all grammatical forms: kotik1 "sea pinniped mammal" and kotik2 "cat";

thrash 1 "peel off something, peel off" and thrash 2 "strongly beat, pound."

Incomplete (or partial) lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech, but have a mismatch of some grammatical forms: mature1 (ripens) “sing, mature” and mature2 (sees) “look, look, see”.

Homonymous words do not have any associative connection inherent in the meanings of a polysemantic word.

Phonetic homonyms (or homophones) are words that have the same sound shell, but different spellings: genie (n.) - genie (n.); beg (ch.) - belittle (ch.), etc. Homophones can belong both to one and to different parts of speech:

drizzle (n.) - frost (n.), in a row (n.) - in a row (adv.). Homophones can conditionally include words and phrases that have a sound match: in place - instead, that brand - Tamarka, etc.

Grammatical homonyms (or homoforms) are words that coincide in sound and spelling only in separate grammatical forms: courts (noun ship in R.p. pl.) - courts (n. court in R.p. pl. .), oven (n.) - oven (ch. in n.f.), etc.

Graphic homonyms (or homographs) are words that have the same spelling, but differ in stress, due to which they are pronounced differently:

property (a distinctive feature of something) - property (relations of kinship by blood, but arising between relatives of spouses).

Ways to distinguish between homonyms and polysemantic words:

1) synonyms for words and comparison of synonyms with each other: platform1 - platform and platform2 - action program

2) selection of related (single-root) words and comparison of word forms: braid1 - pigtail, braid and braid2 - mow;

3) establishing the lexical compatibility of words, as well as their syntactic compatibility: clears up 1 - the sky and clears up 2 - question, situation;

4) the use of etymological information: tick1 "nervous disease" (from French), tick2 "tree species" (from English), tick3 "fabric" (from Dutch).

The existence of polysemy and homonymy creates certain difficulties in the use of words. The specific meaning of the word is revealed in the context, so the context must provide a correct understanding of the word, otherwise it may lead to ambiguity. For example, in the context The students listened to the teacher's explanations, the meaning of the word listened is not revealed (listened from beginning to end or passed by the ears).

Synonymy. The concept of synonyms and synonymic series. Single synonyms.

Types of differences between synonyms (synonyms are ideographic, stylistic, emotional-evaluative, etc.). Synonyms are linguistic and contextual.

Lexical synonyms (gr. synnymos - homonymous) are words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic coloring, or in both and sound differently: well-being, prosperity , prosperity, prosperity; shout, yell, yell, bawl, tear; unsure, indecisive, unsteady.

Synonyms are combined in rows. The dominant of the synonymic series is the stylistically neutral and semantically most capacious word, which is the main, pivotal word in the series: awkward, clumsy, clumsy, angular, awkward, awkward, clumsy; run, rush, rush, fly. The dominant determines the general interpretation of the dictionary synonymous entry and is a semantic reference point for other members of the series. The value of each synonym is matched against the value of the dominant. By the number of words, the synonymic rows are not the same: assembly - installation (2), evasive - indefinitely - diplomatically (3), sugary - sugary - unctuous - sweet - sweet - sugary - honey - honeydew - treacle (9), etc.

The following groups of synonyms are distinguished:

1. Semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of meaning:

hot, sultry, scorching express a different degree of intensity of the manifestation of a sign;

explain, broadcast, oratory emphasize a different way of performing an action.

2. Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, have a different scope of use or different stylistic coloring: province (neutral), wilderness (colloquial), sad (neutral) - kruchinny (folk poetic); father (neutral, lit.) - father (obsolete)

3. Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: to lose weight - to grow thin; famous - notorious; demand is an ultimatum.

4. Absolute synonyms (doublets) - words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences: because - since; hippopotamus - hippopotamus, etc.

According to the word-formation composition, single-root synonyms (investigation - investigation) and multi-root synonyms (blind - blind) are distinguished.

Synonyms may differ in lexical compatibility: a person works (works) - a machine works (but does not work!); spelling literacy - awareness of business.

Polysemantic words in different meanings are included in different synonymous series:

fresh - clean (handkerchief), cool (wind), peppy (person), new (magazine), unsalted (cucumber).

Reasons for the formation of synonyms in Russian:

1) the desire to fully comprehend the phenomenon of reality, to discover something new and give it a name: aerobics - shaping;

2) penetration into the language and mastering foreign vocabulary: saying - aphorism, enthusiastic - exalted;

3) replenishment of synonymous rows with dialect and vernacular vocabulary: recently

- Nadys, just now, the other day;

4) the development of the polysemy of the word: narrow-minded - close (path), limited (man);

5) the emergence of synonyms as a result of word-formation processes:

copy - photocopy;

6) the desire to give the statement a different emotional coloring: to die - to bend over, to hoard.

Contextual synonyms are words whose meaning converges only in a certain context (out of context they are not synonyms). In most cases, contextual synonyms are expressively colored, since their main task is not to name the phenomenon, but to characterize it. For example, in certain contexts, the verb to speak (to say) can have synonyms for throwing, dropping, dropping, blurting, chipping, freezing, giving out, bending, screwing, etc.

Functions of lexical synonyms:

1) semantic - serve to differentiate meanings (scream - cry);

2) style-distinctive - indicate the style, scope of use: to carry out (inter-style) - to materialize (bookish);

3) stylistic proper - they express emotionally expressive meanings:

cure (neutr.) - heal (book).

Lexical synonyms help to clarify, supplement ideas about objects, phenomena of reality, to characterize them more vividly and versatile. The richer the synonymic rows, the richer the language, the richer the opportunities for the creative use of the language.

The stringing of synonyms underlies gradation - a figure of speech in which synonyms are arranged so that the degree of expression of a feature in them increases (ascending gradation) or decreases (descending gradation): His voice, already weak and infirm, becomes barely audible, and then and completely indistinguishable (M. Alekseev) Anthony. The concept of antonyms. Antonyms are linguistic and contextual. Types of antonyms according to the semantic essence of the opposite and according to the structure (antonyms denoting opposite qualities, states, and antonyms denoting opposite actions, properties, signs;

antonyms are heterogeneous, single-root, intra-word).

Lexical antonyms (gr. anti... - against, o puta - name) - these are words that are opposite in meaning: straightness - curvature, dark - light, chill - keep warm, long - short, etc. The antonymic series is made up of words belonging to the same part of speech. Service relations can also enter into antonymic relations (for example, prepositions: to - from, to - from, with - without). However, the words enter into antonymous relations:

1) in the meaning of which there is a shade of quality: high - low, straight - curve;

2) naming emotions: smile - frown;

3) indicating the state: warm - cold;

4) denoting temporal and spatial relationships: yesterday - today, ahead - behind, there - here, north - south;

5) naming actions: speed up - slow down, get up - sit down;

Do not have an antonymous pair:

1) words with a concrete-objective meaning (in the literal sense): cat, closet, etc .;

2) proper names: Moscow, Taimyr;

3) numerals: one hundred, eleventh, two thirds;

4) most pronouns: me, they, ours, etc.

By structure, antonyms are divided into:

1) heterogeneous: poverty - luxury, active - passive, blame - protect, today - tomorrow;

2) single root: happiness - misfortune, gratifying - cheerless, fly in - fly away.

One-root antonyms arise as a result of word-formation processes, therefore they are also called lexico-grammatical or lexical word-formation. As a rule, they are formed as a result of attaching prefixes with the opposite meaning: in- - from-, for- - from-, on- - from-, over- - under-, under-over- and the first parts of compound words like easy- and heavy, micro- and macro-, mono- and poly others: undernourishment - overeat, microcosm - macrocosm, monologue - dialogue.

Sometimes, in the process of functioning in speech, the word changes its meaning to the opposite, this phenomenon is called enantiosemy, or intra-semantic antonymy (gr. enantios - opposite, opposite): to look at smth.-1) “look from beginning to end” 2) “not notice , do not perceive "; make a reservation - 1) “to say by accident”, 2) “specially note in advance”.

A polysemantic word, depending on the meaning and lexical compatibility, can enter into different antonyms: fresh - 1) warm (wind), 2) rotten (piece of meat), 3) old, yesterday (newspaper), 4) dirty (handkerchief) and etc.; runs - 1) crawls (about a person), 2) stretches (about time).

Antonyms are linguistic and contextual (or speech). Linguistic antonyms are based on semantic opposition, which manifests itself regularly and does not depend on the use (nomadic - settled, recognize - deny).

Contextual antonyms are an occasional phenomenon, limited by the context:

Soon from swallows to witches! Youth! Let's say goodbye the day before ... (Color.) Antonyms are most often used in the text in pairs, expressing the most diverse shades of meaning - comparison, opposition of opposite phenomena, properties, qualities, actions, etc.:

My faithful friend! my enemy is insidious!

My king! my slave! native language!

(V. Bryusov)

Such figurative and expressive means are based on antonymy, such as:

1) figurative comparison: My rudeness is much easier than yours, comrade Tumanov, so to speak, politeness. (N.A. Ostrovsky);

2) antithesis (opposition): Houses are new, but prejudices are old ... (A.S. Griboyedov);

3) oxymoron (connection of the incompatible): Only ominous darkness shone to us.

(A. Akhmatova) Paronymy.

Paronyms (gr. para - near, o puta - name) are words that are similar in sound, often the same root, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in meaning:

bony - bony, well-fed - satisfying, anniversary - hero of the day, diplomat - student - diploma student, etc. Paronyms can be of different roots: untalented - untalented, escalator - excavator. The reason for the appearance of heterogeneous paronyms is the accidental convergence of words in sound, which is more often observed in borrowed words: Indian - Indian, Korean - Korean.

One-root paronyms may differ:



1) meaning or shade of meaning: spectacular (catchy, bright) and effective (productive, effective);

2) lexical compatibility: spruce (cones, paws, forests) - Christmas tree (decorations, toys, bazaars); tenant (of a house) - a resident (of a city);

3) syntactic compatibility: certification (of relatives, administration - in what?) - certification (of documents);

4) lexical-syntactic compatibility; put on (what: hat, coat) - dress (whom: doll, child);

5) stylistic coloring: bold (neutral) - bold (high).

Often in speech there is a mixture of paronyms, which leads to speech errors: bony fish, put on a jacket, etc. To prevent such errors, paronymic pairs should be compared, similarities and differences between paronyms should be found out.

The rules for the normative use of paronyms and their compatibility are enshrined in the dictionaries of paronyms.

Differentiation of vocabulary from an expressive-stylistic point of view. Vocabulary interstyle (stylistically neutral) and stylistically colored The modern Russian literary language is characterized by stylistic diversity, that is, it has a wide system of means that ensure verbal communication in various spheres of human activity. The style system of the literary language can be represented as a diagram.

Functional styles of the language book styles colloquial style scientific official journalistic literary style business style artistic style oral and written), but the differences are most noticeable in the use of vocabulary and phraseology. Depending on the scope of use, two groups of words can be distinguished; 1) stylistically neutral or interstyle vocabulary, and 2) stylistically colored (or marked) vocabulary, divided into book (scientific, business, publicistic) and colloquial vocabulary. Colloquial vocabulary is adjacent to colloquial vocabulary, but is outside the literary language.

Words can not only name objects, phenomena of reality, but also express attitudes towards these phenomena, give them an assessment. According to the presence or absence of an emotional or expressive assessment, words are divided into emotionally expressive (sophisticated, sophisticated, global, patriotism, grace, etc.) and neutral (earth, study, football, rainy, sometimes, etc.). The difference in the stylistic coloring of such words is revealed when comparing: life - vegetation, go - rush, sculpture - statue, short - lapidary, etc. The scope of the use of words that have an emotionally expressive coloring is limited.

In explanatory dictionaries there are special marks indicating the stylistic characteristics of words:

book. - book word, used for written, book presentation:

manuscript, illness, unshakable, omen, etc.;

high - high, gives speech a shade of solemnity, elation, characteristic of journalistic, oratorical, poetic speech: take courage, inextinguishable, obstacle, year, life-giving, etc .;

official - official, peculiar to the speech of official relations:

unclaimed, non-payment, non-appearance, prescription, etc.;

unfold - colloquial, used in oral, colloquial speech: master, vixen, minister, slander, etc .;

simple. - vernacular, characteristic of oral urban colloquial speech, as well as used for stylization ("literary vernacular"): conscience, money, for nothing, natoret, etc .;

disapproved - disapproving: jump, mask, fool, etc .;

neglected - scornful: image, mess, miser, etc .;

joke. - playful: warrior, adorer, baptize (call);

iron. - ironic: muslin (young lady);

bran. - abusive: idiot, ugly, bastard, etc.

Consequently, the stylistic coloring of the word can, on the one hand, indicate the scope of use, on the other hand, the emotional and expressive content of the word, its evaluative function. All this creates a two-dimensional stylistic coloring of the word.

Ways of development and sources of formation of the lexical system of the modern Russian language.

The formation of the vocabulary of the Russian language is a long and complex process. There are words in the language that appeared in antiquity and are still functioning, there are words that have come into active use relatively recently, there are those that have ceased to be commonly used, but are found in the literature. Thus, constantly active processes take place in the lexical stock: something dies in it and something new is born.

As a result of the development of political, economic, cultural relations between peoples and states, words from other languages ​​constantly penetrate into our language.

From the point of view of origin, two layers can be distinguished in the Russian language: native Russian vocabulary and borrowed vocabulary. Borrowing of words is observed in all periods of development.

Reflection in the vocabulary of the processes taking place in society.

As a phenomenon, social language is the property of all people belonging to the same collective. In the vast majority of cases, a group of people who speak the same language (“linguistic community”) is an ethnic group (nation, nationality, tribe). Every human society is heterogeneous in its composition. It is divided into layers or classes, divided into small groups, within which people are united by some feature, for example, a common profession, the same age, level and nature of education, etc. This differentiation of society is reflected in the language in the form of certain features, socially conditioned subsystems.

Language is in close interaction with the development of society. The state of the language and its vocabulary depends on the state of society. Under feudalism, each possession of a feudal lord or monastery was a kind of state, and this contributed to the emergence of small territorial dialects, which are characterized by a lexical difference: the same objects can be called differently in dialects (kuren and hut). As the forms of the historical community of people (tribe, union of tribes, nationality, nation) consolidate, the internal organization of the language and its unity increase.

The question of the nature of the relationship between language and society is very complex, multifaceted, and there are different points of view on this matter. There is an opinion that the social character of a language is revealed only in the external conditions of its existence, depending on the conditions in which the native speakers of this language live. But the most profound look at this problem allows us to assert that the social nature of the language is found not only in the external conditions of its existence, but also in the very nature of the language (in its vocabulary, in grammatical possibilities, in the level of development of styles). So, for example, “the changing names of fantastic artificial people and real “smart” machines - homunculus - robot - computer - mark the stages in the development of science and technology from the mythical Pandora to the real computer with a special language marking. Under the influence of socio-political factors, plural forms appear, for example, in abstract nouns such as initiative (peace initiatives), reality (post-war realities, new realities), agreement (partial agreements).

The influence of society on the language can be subject not only to laws of an objective nature, but be the result of the conscious activity of people, i.e. be the result of a certain language policy. Language policy as a conscious, active and organized influence on the language is manifested, for example, in the normalization activities of scientists (creation of normative dictionaries and grammars, reference books;

improvement of spelling; the use of media norms for propaganda, etc.).

Language reacts to all the changes taking place both in the public and in the individual consciousness, reflects them. First of all, this is manifested, of course, in the vocabulary of the most massive and large-circulation publications, i.e. newspapers and magazines.

An illustration of this can be the processes that characterized the vocabulary of the mass media in the 80-90s of the XX century - a time that was one of the turning points in the development of our social consciousness.

During these years, previously extremely rare words that were, as it were, on the periphery of the language, became more active: charity, mercy, repentance, gymnasium, lyceum, stock exchange, action, market, etc.

The socio-economic and political transformations of the last decade have led to the replenishment of our vocabulary with many borrowings, mainly Anglicisms: broker, dealer, marketing, manager, speaker, sponsor, supermarket, etc.

Our lexicon has significantly expanded and due to the fact that all kinds of technical innovations have come into our life, our way of life from the West, and with them their names: display, cartridge, pager, player, printer, fax machine, etc.

In the last decade, many words of religious themes have returned to active word usage, which for a long time were used in the literary language, mostly in a figurative sense, as a means of expressing irony, disapproval of the signified, such as: lamb, anathema, gospel, fasting, righteous , rites, rites, etc. At present, the words of this group are increasingly acting as evaluative-neutral names, even when they are not used in their direct meaning.

The rethinking of historical experience, the reassessment of the former categories of consciousness led to changes in the evaluative properties of many words. These changes are taking place in three directions.

1. Words that were evaluatively neutral become evaluative words. So, basically, in sharply negative contexts after the start of perestroika, previously neutral words began to be used: apparatus (administrative apparatus), department, departmental (departmental interests), nomenklatura (nomenclature workers), privileges, elite.

2. Words that had evaluation lose it.

In completely neutral contexts, the words dissident, Sovietologist, which were previously negatively evaluative, are now used (see, for example, newspaper headlines:

"Meeting with Sovietologists", "About Sovietologists and Americanists"). Before our very eyes, the words opposition, faction have lost their former - sharply negative - appraisal.

3. The word changes its appraisal to the opposite. Such a fate has experienced in our time the words associated with the communist ideology and were previously positively evaluative, but now more and more often used in negative evaluative contexts: Soviet, bright future.

Old and new in vocabulary. Outdated vocabulary. Types of obsolete words: historicisms, archaisms. New vocabulary (neologisms). Causes and ways of the emergence of new words.

Each period of language development is characterized by a certain ratio of active and passive vocabulary, since what was relevant for one era may lose its relevance in the future, and words can go into a passive vocabulary of the language.

For example, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the following names of vehicles were common: horse-drawn carriage (railway in the city with horse-drawn traction), britzka (light semi-covered road wagon), drogi (long cart without a body, as well as a funeral wagon), span ( light open double carriage), etc., and today the vocabulary includes the words limousine, sedan, hatchback, convertible (types of cars depending on the body structure).

The active stock also includes words that have a limited scope of use (terms, professional vocabulary), but designate concepts and phenomena that are relevant for a given period of language development: ecology, computer, design, etc.

Some words that have become obsolete may become active again and become commonly used: governor, seminary, gymnasium, lyceum, police, etc. Others are actively used for a short time, and then immediately begin to become obsolete (perestroika, voucher) Historicisms and archaisms belong to obsolete words .

Obsolete words, historicisms, archaisms, words that have become obsolete, denoting concepts, objects, because objects, phenomena that exist at the present time have disappeared from life;

the phenomena they denoted; not ousted from active use have synonyms in the modern language: in other words; have synonyms in a tavern (inn), a maid in modern language: kuafer (hairdresser), firewood sweets (sweets), karla (dwarf), daughter (room maid), (peasant sleigh). (daughter).

Thematic groups of historicisms:

1) names of ancient clothes: undershirt, yarmulke, epancha, soul jacket, etc.; 2) names of monetary units: imperial, polushka, five-altynny;

3) ancient titles, titles, job titles: nobility, lordship, mayor, hussar, commuter, batman;

4) the name of weapons and military items: axe, flail, redoubt;

5) administrative names: volost, county, province;

6) the names of the phenomena of social life: laborer, kulak, Cominternist, selfish, duel;

7) the names of the letters of the old alphabet: izhitsa, az, yat, etc.

Archaisms

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Reasons for the transition of words into a passive vocabulary of the language:

1) extralinguistic (extralinguistic) associated with changes in the cultural, economic, social spheres;

2) linguistic ones, associated with the presence of functional varieties of language and speech, synonymous connections (primarily with the presence of stylistic synonyms), etc.

The role of obsolete words in the Russian language is diverse. Historicisms in special, scientific literature are used for the most accurate description of a certain period of a country's development. In works of fiction, they recreate the color of the era.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly updated with new words. New words - neologisms - appear in the language to designate some new concept, phenomenon. Examples of neologisms of our time are the words summit, valeology (teaching about a healthy lifestyle), casting, Internet, modem, tender, supermodel, capri (cropped trousers), flash mob (action "instant crowd"), fast food, etc.

Terminological systems are especially actively replenished with new words:

transfer, advice note, clearing (economics), lifting, scrub, phyto milk, peeling (cosmetology). Neologisms reflect the changes observed in various areas of life: moderator, tutor, distance learning, bachelor's degree, master's degree (education), security, presentation, monitoring, euro (public life), etc. Many of these words go into an active vocabulary. For example, the therins that arose in the 50-70s of the 20th century, associated with the development of astronautics - an astronaut, a cosmodrome, cosmic vision, telemetry, a spacecraft, etc., due to their relevance, very quickly became commonly used.

Methods for the formation of neologisms:

1) from the elements available in the language: snowmobile, video-two;

2) borrowing: diving, rafting;

3) the formation of words in Russian based on borrowed ones: PR - PR, PR, PR;

4) semantic transformations, the development of ambiguity: a mole (a liquid that clears pipe blockages), a mouse (computer), a shuttle (a small trader in imported goods), etc.

Neologisms proper lexical lexico-semantic individual-author's

Words that arose for words, in which words created by writers, new names developed by publicists, public meaning: collapse (abrupt concepts, phenomena, actions: figures with a certain copier, botox, printer, depreciation of the stylistic goal of a laptop; national currency); (perform an expressive dog function): stihocrat (M.

Words formed by (@ sign);

stroke (a means for leaderism to normative models from Gorky), (E.

vulgarly already existing in the language: corrections of the record) and Yevtushenko), (V.

missile carrier, SUV etc. Mayakovsky), etc.

Individual author's neologisms (or occasionalisms) perform only an expressive function, rarely pass into the literary language and are used by the people. Like linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms are formed according to the laws of the language, according to models from the morphemes that are available in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: to rise high, to rise, to chamber (V. Mayakovsky.); prosin, fortune-telling (herbs), (S. Yesenin), etc.

In different periods, the activity of the appearance of neologisms of different thematic groups is not the same.

Periods of appearance of neologisms:

1) the post-October period: new words of social and political themes came into the language (Bolshevik, Leninist, party organizer, Komsomol, pioneer, October, factory committee, local committee, Red Navy, Nepman, etc.), new nomenclature names (USSR, Council of People's Commissars, CPSU, etc.) ;

2) during the period of industrialization and collectivization: words reflecting changes in the economic life of the country (GOELRO, food order, leveling, food appropriation, collective farm, state farm, VDNKh, five-year plan, etc.) associated with the development of science and technology (milling machine, asphalt worker, nuclear power plant, ZIL, GAZidr.), words associated with the development of culture and education (workers' faculty, reading room, educational program, book lover, etc.);

3) The Great Patriotic War: words associated with wartime events and naming people by type of activity (blockade, firefighter, medical officer, etc.), denoting the names of weapons and front-line household items (lighter, fughastka, funeral, Annushka (airplane), igniters etc.), names of actions (raid, buzzer, etc.);

4) post-war period: words associated with the development of sciences, included in the terminological systems (narcologist, resuscitator, biogen, transplantation, etc.), associated with the process of space exploration (astronaut, lunar, lunar rover, spaceport, etc.), associated with development sports (badminton, biathlon, karting, etc.), naming household items, clothes (jeans, Pepsi, jewelry, etc.), new colloquial words (company, skate, three-ruble note, etc.);

5) late XIX - early XX centuries: words associated with computerization and the development of new information technologies (computer, printer, scanner, disk drive, browser, portal, etc.); economic terms (leasing, logistics, consulting, broker, barter, etc.); words of socio-political topics (GKChP, CIS, pressure, impeachment, inauguration, etc.).

The origin of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The concept of native Russian vocabulary. Primordially Russian vocabulary in terms of the time of its occurrence. borrowed vocabulary.

Reasons for borrowing it from another language.

Native Russian vocabulary According to the similarity of words, roots, affixes, phonetic and grammatical features, proximity of origin, the relationship of languages ​​is established. A single early Slavic ethnic community used a common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language (approximately the 7th century AD), which dates back to an even earlier Indo-European proto-language, which gave rise to the modern Indo-European language family. The Indo-European family includes the Slavic group: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), West Slavic, South Slavic languages. In the Russian language, layers of native Russian vocabulary can be distinguished, different in origin and time of appearance: Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper.

There are many words in the Russian language that appeared in antiquity and make up the layer of the original vocabulary.

Vocabulary of the Russian language Native Russian vocabulary Borrowed vocabulary

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Common Slavic words Indo-European words Native Russian vocabulary (words that arose after the separation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​in the 16th century)

Formed by suffixes -schik-, -chik- (drummer), Names

Hovk (a) (strike), -sh (a) (majorsha), -nost nouns (elevation), -schin (a) (corvee)

Compound abbreviated: head teacher, savings bank, physical education

On -ost-: impressionability, entertaining

Formed from verbs without the help of suffixes:

transition, cry

With suffixes -chat-, -chiv-: ciliated, accommodating Names sweet and sour, adjectives - compound adjectives:

Northern Russian Verbs - formed from verbs with the help of a prefix and a postfix –sya: burst into tears, see each other Adverbs - formed from adjectives with the help of a prefix in - and suffixes -i, -om, -him: comradely, in English, in summer, in to yours all derivative unions and prepositions: because, in the Service parts continued, instead of speech, Indo-European words were inherited by the ancient languages ​​​​of the Indo-European language family after the collapse of the Indo-European language community (before the III - II centuries BC).

The similarity of such words is found in many Indo-European languages: Russian. three, Ukrainian three, s.-Chorov. three, Czech. ti, English, three, lat. tres, Spanish tres. This is the oldest layer in the original Russian vocabulary. Words of Indo-European origin include:

some kinship terms: brother, daughter, mother, sister, son;

animal names: bull, wolf, sheep;

names of plants, food products, various vital concepts: willow, water, meat, day, firewood, smoke, name, month;

numerals: two, three, ten;

names of actions: cherish, be (eat), carry, command, believe, turn, see, give, share, wait, live, have, carry;

names of signs and qualities: barefoot, dilapidated;

prepositions: without, before, etc.

Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) vocabulary is the words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes (the period from the 3rd - 2nd centuries BC, when the Indo-European proto-language, or the base language, disintegrates, until the 6th century AD) .

Common Slavic words reveal phonetic and semantic similarities in the South, West and East Slavic languages: Russian. banner, Bulgarian banner, Czech, zname, Polish. znami.

Common Slavic words make up a relatively small part of the modern dictionary, but they form its core, since they are the most commonly used. Common Slavic vocabulary includes:

names of agricultural labor tools and other tools of production: harrow, rake, scythe, hoe, sickle, plow; needle, hammer, knife, saw, axe, awl, as well as a spear, bow, arrow, bowstring;

names of products of rural labor, plants, etc.: rye, cereals, flour; birch, tree, viburnum, cabbage, maple, cranberry, flax, linden, wheat, rye, apple, barley;

names of animals, fish, birds, insects: otter, hare, mare, cow, fox, elk;

snake, snake, lizard; tench, eel; woodpecker, magpie, swift; mosquito;

names of parts of the human body: thigh, eyebrow, head, tooth, hand, skin, knee, face, forehead, leg, nose, shoulder, arm, body, ear;

kinship terms: grandson, godfather, mother-in-law, father-in-law, aunt;

the names of dwellings, utensils and many other vital concepts: door, house, road, hut, porch, shop, stove, floor, ceiling, canopy; spring, winter, summer, autumn; clay, iron, gold; kalach, porridge, jelly; evening, night, morning; century, hour; oak forest, hoarfrost, spark, forest, pit;

abstract vocabulary: excitement, grief, deed, good, evil, thought, happiness, etc.

East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary is words that appeared approximately from the 6th to the 14th - 15th centuries. only in the language of the Eastern Slavs. These are words common to Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. Eastern Slavic include the names of various qualities, properties, actions: lively, brown, sharp-sighted, dark;

buzz, wander, excite, sway, excuse, beckon;

kinship terms: uncle, nephew;

household names: strap, samovar, hook, twine, basket;

animal names: squirrel, viper, bullfinch, cat, finch;

counting units: forty, ninety; thirteen;

words with a temporary meaning: today, now.

Actually, Russian vocabulary is words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people (since the 14th century) and are born (and not appear, because words can also appear by borrowing) in the language and at the present time. The names of actions belong to the Russian proper: to shine, fawn, thin out, swagger, somersault, fasten, clownish, make mistakes;

names of household items, food products: tub, wallpaper, tiles, pendulum, cabbage rolls, jacket;

natural phenomena, plants, birds, fish, animals: ice, rooster, honey agaric, dodder, seal, reed;

names of signs of objects, signs of actions, states: ordinary, shy, cloudy, cautious, wholesale, headlong, poke;

names of persons by type of activity: boyfriend, pilot, fireman, racer;

names of abstract concepts: pleasure, caution, result;

expressive-evaluative names of a person: pigalitsa, okhalnik, gollyba, mutt;

abbreviations: GOST, KPSS, university, etc.

As part of the Russian vocabulary itself, new words appear in the following ways:

1) in the process of word formation: to navigate - from the word landmark (borrowed);

2) as a result of semantic transformations of words that already existed in the language (the emergence of homonyms as a result of the collapse of polysemy, the formation of a new, figurative meaning): class, party, pioneer, etc.

At any stage of the development of a language, vocabulary from other languages ​​inevitably gets into it. Borrowing is one of the ways to develop the lexical system of the Russian language. The borrowing of foreign language vocabulary occurs as a result of the development of political, economic, cultural, scientific ties between peoples and states. A morpheme can also be borrowed: prefixes a-, super-, counter-, post-, etc .;

suffixes -izm, -ist, -tion, etc.

Getting into the Russian language, foreign words can undergo complete assimilation, so that they are perceived by native speakers as Russian: croutons, school, beets, etc. Dutch (German:

curtain, standard, assault, fitting; Dutch: storm, steering wheel); combination j - from English (jam, jumper, jeans). If in the process of borrowing foreign vocabulary is assimilated, Russified, then the foreign word undergoes graphic, phonetic, grammatical, semantic changes. This process is called development. Graphic development - the transfer of a foreign word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet - is observed in words borrowed from languages ​​that have a different graphic system: English. feetness - Russian. fitness. Phonetic development is a change in the sound image of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions: overcoat - pronounced [n'e] like Russian words. Grammar development

- this is an adaptation of a foreign word to the grammatical system of the Russian language:

for example, in English cakes is plural, and in Russian cake is singular. When borrowing, it is possible to change the part of speech: Russian. out (n.) - English. out (adv.).

Borrowings are divided into two groups: 1) from Slavic languages ​​(Old Slavic, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Czech, Polish, etc.); 2) from non-Slavic languages ​​(Greek and Latin, Western European, Turkic, etc.

languages). By the time of their appearance in the Russian language, borrowings are divided into early (the period of existence of the common Slavic and Old Russian languages) and later (borrowings that replenished and replenished the Russian vocabulary itself). The oldest borrowings include words that came into the Russian language, in particular, from the Old Slavonic, Finnish, Tatar and Greek languages. In different periods, borrowings from different languages ​​​​are active: after the adoption of Christianity - from the Old Slavonic language, in the Petrine era - from German and Dutch); single borrowings are also possible (jap. geisha, sakura, etc.).

From the Scandinavian languages, a few words related to business and everyday vocabulary have entered Russian: brand, hook, tiun, sneak, anchor; fish names: shark, herring, stingray;

personal names: Askold, Igor, Oleg, Rurik, etc.

The names of fishes, natural phenomena and flora, national dishes, etc. are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages: flounder, sprat, smelt, saffron cod, herring, salmon; snowstorm, tundra; fir; dumplings; sleds, etc.; geographical names:

Kandalaksha, Kineshma, Klyazma, Kostroma, Totma, Sheksna (the word-building element -ma indicates the Finnish origin of the toponym).


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Lexicology (from other Greek leoyt - word, expression, lgpt - science, judgment) - a section of linguistics that studies vocabulary. Lexicology is divided into general and particular. Private lexicology studies the lexical composition of a particular language. Lexicology deals with:

Sections of lexicology:

  • 1) Onomasiology (ancient Greek ?npmb name, other Greek lgpt judgment) - explores the process of naming objects.
  • 2) Semasiology (ancient Greek uzmbuYab sign, meaning, other Greek lgpt judgment) - explores the meaning of words and phrases. It answers the question of how extralinguistic reality is displayed in words.
  • 3) Phraseology (ancient Greek tsyuyt way of expression, other Greek lgpt judgment) - studies the phraseological composition of the language, the relationship of words between themselves and with other units of the language.
  • 4) Onomastics (ancient Greek ?npmbufykYu letters. - the art of giving names) - studies already existing proper names in the broad sense of the word: a) toponymy - studies geographical names; b) anthroponymy - studies the names and surnames of people.
  • 5) Etymology (ancient Greek ? fkhmpn original meaning [words]) - studies the origin of words and vocabulary in general.
  • 6) Lexicography - deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
  • 7) Stylistics - studies the connotative meaning of words and expressions.

Tasks of lexicology:

  • 1. The study of concepts - units, the structure of values ​​and patterns of functioning.
  • 2. Categorical and lexico-semantic relations (polysemy, antonymy, etc.)
  • 3. Classification and description of vocabulary (formation, scope of use)
  • 4. Phraseology
  • 5. Lexicography
  • 22. Referential approach to the meaning of a word

morphological English lexical

Modern linguistics can distinguish two approaches to the problem of determining meaning: referential (referential) and functional (functional). Scientists adhering to the referential approach seek to describe the meaning as a component of the word, with the help of which a concept is transmitted, and which thus gives the word the ability to objectively reflect the existing reality, designate objects, qualities, actions and abstract concepts.

The central idea of ​​this approach is the allocation of three factors that characterize the meaning of the word: “the word (the symbol)” (the sound form of the word), “the mental content” (the concept) and “the referent” (the term “referent” - that object (action , quality), which stands for the word). In accordance with this approach, the meaning is understood as a complex whole, consisting of the designated object and the concept of this object.

This relationship is represented by scientists in the form of a schematic representation, namely, triangles that differ slightly from each other. The most famous is the Ogden-Richards triangle, given in the book of the German linguist Gustav Stern “Meaning and change of meaning with special reference to the English language”. Thought or reference (the mental content) Symbol Referent The term “symbol” here means the word; “thought” or “reference” is a concept.

offers the following definition of the meaning of a word: the meaning of a word is a known reflection of an object, phenomenon or relationship in the mind (or a mental formation similar in nature, constructed from reflections of individual elements of reality - mermaid, goblin, witch, etc.), which is part of the structure word as its so-called inner side in relation to which the sound of the word acts as a material shell, necessary not only for expressing the meaning and for communicating it to other people, but also for its very emergence, formation, existence and development. The above scientists in their definitions point to the most important component of meaning - the expression of the concept.

The connection between the referent and the word is actually established only with the help of the concept.

The semantic structure of a word is the semantic structure of the basic unit of vocabulary (see Word). S. s. from. manifests itself in its polysemy (see) as the ability to name (designate) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states) with the help of internally related meanings. The semantic structure of an unambiguous word is reduced to its seme composition (see Seme) .

A lexeme is a word as an independent unit of language, considered in the totality of its forms and meanings. One lexeme combines different paradigmatic forms (word forms) of one word (for example, “dictionary, dictionary, dictionary”, etc.).

Sememma, or semanteme (from the Greek sembino - “I designate”; the term is formed by analogy with the terms phoneme, morpheme) is a unit of the language content plan, correlated with the morpheme (the minimum unit of the expression plan) as a set of components of its content (sem). Thus, the sememe is the minimum unit of the content system, correlated with the element of the system of expression. Sometimes in the generalized concept of a sememe, two are singled out depending on the nature of the meaning expressed in the morpheme:

lexeme (a set of lexical meanings);

gramme (a set of grammatical meanings). Semma is a differential semantic feature, a component of meaning that is revealed when comparing the meanings of different words. The elementary smallest limiting component of l.z. word or its seeds. For example: the words good - bad are distinguished by the seme of negation.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language. The vocabulary is the most variable part of the language. Any changes in the life of the people - native speakers are immediately reflected in the vocabulary. So, in connection with the changes that have taken place in our lives over the past few years, such words as “management”, “hot dog”, “voucherization”, “yogurt” have appeared in the Russian language.

Words that have recently appeared in the language are called neologisms. Some linguists define neologisms as words that have arisen in the memory of the generation that uses them. In other words, the word remains a neologism as long as people are alive who remember the time when this word did not exist. Neologisms especially actively arise during the years of active changes in the life of society. So, for example, a huge number of new words entered the Russian language in the 20s of the twentieth century - in the period immediately following the October Revolution.

Occasionalisms should be distinguished from neologisms. Occasionalisms are words created by the author of a work of art and did not go beyond the scope of this work, did not receive use outside of it. There are especially many occasionalisms in the poetry of the twentieth century. So, in Andrei Voznesensky we meet “displayboy” (display + playboy), cold (catch a cold + cold), cabaret (boar + young lady):

Kabarishni flutter between candlesticks,
Their hooves are as soft as snowdrops.

The opposite of neologisms are words that have gone out of active use - historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms are words that have gone out of active use due to the fact that the realities denoted by these words have disappeared from our lives. Examples of historicisms are: “boyar”, “caftan”, “archer”, “chain mail”; English: helm (helmet), lance - knight (spearman, landsknecht), tumbrel (two-wheeled cart).

Archaisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the fact that the realities that were previously designated by them have received new names. Examples of archaisms include the words “yahon” (ruby), “sail” (sail), “bribe” (bribe), “clerk” (seller), “in vain” (in vain), “right hand” (on the right); English: teen (misfortune - "trouble, misfortune"), grandsire (ancestor - "ancestor"), and many others. others

Among archaisms, we meet the words of all significant parts of speech (with the exception, perhaps, of numerals), and historicisms are almost exclusively nouns. This is due to the fact that, first of all, objects go out of use, signs and actions (phenomena denoted by adjectives and verbs), as a rule, do not disappear. If the reason for the appearance of historicisms in the language is easily explained - it lies in the changes that occur in the life of society, then it is much more difficult to explain the origin of archaisms. No one can say why, at a certain period in the development of the Russian language, the original word "eye" was replaced by the word "eye".

There are cases when a word from neologisms almost immediately becomes obsolete vocabulary. So, for example, it happened with the abbreviation "shkrab" (school worker), which in the first years of Soviet power was tried to replace the word "teacher". Having existed for several years, this abbreviation fell into disuse, remaining a linguistic sign of the era of revolutionary transformations.

It also happens the other way around: a word that seems to have firmly passed into the category of obsolete returns to active life. So, for example, the noun "bailiff" for the Soviet era was an undoubted historicism, since this position disappeared in our country immediately after the revolution of 1917, but it has been almost ten years since the institute of bailiffs was restored in Russia, and this word itself returned to the mainstream. dictionary fund of the Russian language.

A.Yu. Musorin. Fundamentals of the science of language - Novosibirsk, 2004