About the higher “I”, or what Atman is. Atman - the highest “I” Definitions, meanings of words in other dictionaries

A) Brahman, Atman, Thoth, Om (Aum). The ideal of the Upanishads is the knowledge of Brahman, merging with it, achieving unity with this highest reality, achieving bliss (ananda). Brahman is the highest absolute reality. This is not a creator god, as he sometimes appears in some authors (Indian religious and philosophical thought did not know a creator). This is an abstract higher power that at times embodies part of its realities in the form of phenomena of the phenomenal world, that is, it creates something - but not out of nothing, as it might seem at first glance.

Brahman is the one who owns souls, the highest spiritual unity. Each individual soul - Atman - is a part of it. Atman is the Self, but not just the spiritual substance of the individual. Rather, it is “I” with a capital “I,” a manifestation of Brahman, its differentiated emanation. And at the same time, Atman is the same Brahman, just as great and incomprehensible. Atman, like Brahman, created worlds and death, created food and water, although this again is not creation from nothing, but the realization of the spiritual potentials of Atman in the world of phenomenal.

Atman and Brahman are identical to Purusha, the highest spiritual principle, the highest soul, of which the individual’s soul is a grain of sand. Finally, “That” (“That”, Sanskrit Tat.) is identical to all of them. “That”, according to the Katha Upanishad, is “inexpressible, supreme bliss”, this is Brahman, Atman, and Purusha. And, as the final moment of the philosophical and religious mystical understanding of all these higher abstract spiritual categories that are identical to each other and at the same time being a part or manifestation, emanation of each other, a magical (there is no other word for it!) appears in the Upanishads, rather a syllable - “Om "("Aum"). This word means nothing and does not express anything on its own. And at the same time, it means everything and has truly magical power. "Om is Brahman, Om is everything." “Aum” is the past, present and future, it is Atman and Brahman, and each of the three letters of the three-part variant of reading the syllable has a special meaning, corresponding respectively to the state of wakefulness, light and deep sleep (Mandukya Upanishad). By pronouncing “Om”, the Brahman says: “May I reach Brahman” and reaches it.

This mysticism of the Upanishads is the key to that secret, intimate that was considered the basis of the foundations of the ancient Indian philosophy of religion. And although these foundations in their most complete and complete form were recorded later, especially within the framework of the Vedanta system, their origins undoubtedly go back to the period of the Upanishads.

b) Fundamentals of ancient Indian religious philosophy. Everything is phenomenal, i.e. everything that is perceived by the senses and is in constant change is not real, i.e. impermanent, fragile, not immovable, not eternal. But behind everything phenomenal, which is only an external manifestation, hides the real, standing above attributes and qualities. This reality is Brahman, Atman, That, eternity and infinity, the root cause of the phenomenal world, the Universe. That is why it is so important for a true sage to penetrate beyond the phenomenal aspect of all things, the whole world, to That, to Brahman, to the Absolute Reality.

Absolute Reality has three hypostases: Space, Movement and Law. The phenomenal manifestation of matter is the emanation of the first of them, the phenomenal manifestation of energy is the emanation of the second, the phenomenal manifestation of any laws of existence is the emanation of the third. In general, the entire world of the phenomenal is an emanation of the Absolute.

The fact of the alienation of this world from its primary source in all its guises led to the fact that this world, actually illusory, gave rise to all kinds of uncertainty, suffering, and dissatisfaction.

Those who comprehended this (i.e., ascetic hermits, to whom the true picture of the world was revealed), left the illusory world.

Only renunciation of everything material, concentration on everything spiritual, dissolution in the One, in Brahman, in the Absolute, opened up the path to salvation for him, i.e. gave liberation from the chain of rebirths.

At first, hidden, secret, secret, this wisdom was accessible only to a few ascetics. Over time, however, the idea of the world around us as something illusory and the desire to get out of the world of illusions, from the chain of rebirths, from the sphere of the phenomenal, to merge with the real, which stands behind the world of phenomena and is its unshakable, eternal basis, turned into powerful impulse for religious thinking.

In other words, the religious philosophy of the Upanishads in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. as if determined the basic parameters of worldview and the entire system of values, spiritual orientation within the framework of traditional Indian civilization.

Of course, in subsequent centuries, not all of the life of the country and people was built on the principles of the religious thinking of the Upanishad philosophers, but the influence of this philosophy was always very strong. At different levels it was felt in different ways: mysticism and metaphysics in the form of pure abstractions (advaita) were accessible only to the perception of the wise; for average people, all these ideas were presented in their theological and mythological modification (the Absolute was reduced to virtue, liberation to paradise, abstractions were replaced by gods, etc.); the lower level of perception was characterized by ritual instructions, ceremonies, prayers, cult formulas, virtuous behavior, etc.

It was the widespread mass perception of the profaned ideas of the Upanishads that eventually gave birth to Hinduism, which became a widespread religion in medieval India.

However, before the emergence of Hinduism, Indian religious and philosophical thought went through transitional stages, characterized by the existence of various systems. We are talking about six darshan systems that developed on the basis of the philosophy of the Upanishads and are a kind of six parallel aspects of the development of this philosophy.

Three of them (nyaya - logic; vaisheshika - cosmology; mimansa - ritual) are secondary. The other three had a significant influence on the development of religious and cultural traditions in India.

Atman – a word used in Advaita teaching to designate the higher “I.” Atman is not some kind of mystical chimera, but a completely accessible and even obvious experience of one’s own presence at the present moment in time. This is psychic reality, a feeling of being, which in its pure form is experienced as boundless freedom. The Atman is what we are experiencing right now. This is psychological time - the very moment in which life happens - our true essence. The clearer the connection with the higher “I”, the stronger the feeling of the reality that is happening, the feeling that all this is really happening right now. It may seem strange to some why this is even discussed, since the fact that reality exists is something understandable and taken for granted by default. To better clarify the paramount importance that I attach to this “psychic aspect” of life, let us try to consider it in a comparative analysis.

During the day we are awake, performing routine activities, being in a relatively conscious state. However, more often than not, if we are asked to retell what happened to us during the day, including all mental activity, feelings, movements, everything that was felt by our five organs of perception, we will not be able to remember even a fraction of a percent. A person remembers only the key moments that are important for his future activities, related to the projections of the small “I” -. All other memory is repressed into the unconscious.

That is, our everyday is very relative. And when a person goes to sleep, the level of awareness drops several times more, and after sleep, he can remember very little - only the most vivid dreams, and often nothing at all. During sleep, the “sense” of reality is reduced so much that it is almost not recorded at all.

And so, as if in contrast to night sleep, there is another - a superconscious state, in comparison with which even daytime wakefulness will seem like sleep and the absence of life.

The average person is practically unaware of his “beingness,” and perceives these aspects through some indirect experiences - he fixes objects with his mind and concludes that he exists, because otherwise there would be no one to perceive this world of forms. If you accept this simply as a logical fact, thoughts may arise: “well, there is me, and then what? This doesn’t put any extra money in your pocket... What is the practical value of realizing your own existence?”

Such questions, rightly arising from the superficial mind, only indicate that a person is tightly hooked to this mind, and his attention at the moment is not able to tear himself away from the surface and go into the depths, into the cause and essence of the processes taking place - at the present moment.

When we ask such questions, we should pay attention to the fundamental paradox that while the question arises, the questioner himself is absent. What is the point of being interested in consequences if there is no understanding of the original cause of what is happening? What is the point in secondary manifestations of the “I” if a person is completely unaware of this “I”.

We are not aware of our own presence. Some vague sensations of hard, soft, tasty, bitter, important, boring arise, some pictures, feelings, hundreds of superficial thoughts... But where is “I” among all this? What is "I"? If we try to reassure ourselves with this kind of concept like “I am the totality of everything,” then what is our self missing? Where is the line that divides reality into “I” and its absence? Is the hair on our head our self? Our body? Mind? If you feel your “I”, it turns out that there are two “I”s, one of which is watching the other? Or are they observing each other at the same time? Then a certain third “I” appears, capable of being a third-party witness for the previous two, etc. These are mind games, concepts. Our fragmented ego is woven from these mental clots.

Any object that we sense in any way, including all our false selves, is external to us, observed along with other aspects of the world of forms. At a deep level, all forms, as one whole, are also Atman - the highest “I”.

All forms exist because you exist, the light of your consciousness gives them life. The existence of life itself is the radiance of your consciousness.

For a person, Atman is God and the highest transcendental reality. Even a fleeting awareness of the fact of this connection gives joy, a glimpse of an amazing, independent of anything. After all, no one can ever take this away. Atman is life itself, in its absolute aspect, existence itself, the invisible background for everything - the true essence of man. This is a simple, pure and boundless, always fresh, life-filling principle - the source, meaning and essence of reality itself.

Esoteric teachings call awareness of one's higher self enlightenment. Advaita speaks of the Supreme Self as the Atman, the One who truly is. Yoga speaks of the higher “I” as the Purusha, who is endowed with the following properties: beginningless, subtle, omnipresent, conscious, transcendental, eternal, contemplating, cognizing, tasting, inactive, spotless, generating nothing. contribute to the manifestation of these qualities, promote self-knowledge, bring us closer to the truth, to relaxation in the present and reveal the Atman - the higher “I”.

In order for the Atman to open, you do not need to do anything, strain in any way, or strive for something. At first it comes as if everything is falling into sleep and letting go, but wakefulness, as a certain end point, always remains. Then individual reality opens up to what is, has always been, and will be. And then you realize that nothing else has ever existed and could not exist. This is naturalness itself, life, which nothing can interfere with. She simply exists, she contains moments, and at the same time nothing can touch her.

At the level of consciousness, something in us understands that energy has no beginning or limitation, reality can neither increase nor decrease. There can be no attachment to anything, or rejection of anything, because everything that happens is a spontaneous river of life, in the contemplation of which we accept everything as it is, without interference, without any distortion of the Truth, or even its interpretation. We just enjoy the voice of this river, listen to its song, give ourselves to it. Her movement picks up and penetrates every action, every moment. The only thing that is required of us is trust in life. Everything happens by itself in the only possible way.

If everything is existence, what doubt can there be? God, the Absolute, the Supreme, the Higher Self - the words have no meaning, because the life within us does not depend on these symbols.

Doubt is an illusion, concepts are always illusory. Doubts chain one to mental activity, to private limited knowledge. Doubts make you worry, fear, give rise to instability and dissatisfaction. Trust in life makes consciousness insightful, receptive, and bestows intuitive, illuminating thinking. This is a manifestation of the connection between the relative world and the paradoxical, timeless, a manifestation of the connection between man and a higher authority, personality and higher “I”.

Individuality - what you considered yourself all this time - happens in you, but it is not you. For you, your name and personality is a character, a hero of the game, who occurs in this reality along with myriads of other forms. Sometimes this character talks about something, acts, imagines something, reads texts, does practice. All reality is only what happens against the background of the higher “I”, pure being. All the people around you are different parts of your consciousness. Reality simply is. This is your original essence - your home, your true abode. This is amazing, blissful peace, the eternal background of everything.

As an allegory, we can cite the example of a seeker who spent years searching for a magical talisman that had been hanging around his neck all this time. A man, torn by desires, is engaged in a paradoxical activity - in search of happiness, integrity and satisfaction, he turned the whole world upside down and even rushed to the stars, while the greatest secret, containing the full scope of the realization of life itself, was all this time in his own heart.

Selecting certain objects, giving them your full attention, is the same as choosing a separate point in infinity for yourself, and devoting yourself entirely to this point, which has no meaning against the background of absolute existence. Reality will tear us away from it at infinite distances, and again, in fear of losing a non-existent support, we will rush towards it. This is exactly how a person acts when he gives himself over to identification with transitory forms - he misses something immeasurably more majestic, important, all-encompassing than myriads of vain transitory phenomena - he misses life itself.

The existence of any form, or even existence itself, is an inexplicable miracle. Why should there be reality at all? Not human, social, but reality as such, all-encompassing, containing infinity and extending into eternity. Life itself... why does it exist? Could she not exist? This is a very important question! Think about it with your whole being, try to feel this question, because it itself, at its core, already contains the answer. Why does reality exist? At first, the answer will flicker like something impossible, elusive, and only after awakening will this answer reveal its deep essence.

The philosophy of India has always aroused special interest. It is considered one of the most ancient on earth. has the widest distribution and has a huge number of followers. Periodization is based on various sources of thought, most of which have been known to the world since ancient times. Let's look at some below.

Stages of development

Indian philosophy went through several stages in its development. They are:

XV-VI centuries BC e. This stage is called the Vedic period - the stage of orthodox philosophy.
VI-II centuries BC e. This stage is called the epic period. The Mahabharta was also created at this stage. They touch on many problems of the era. At this stage Jainism and Buddhism appeared.
II century BC e. - VII century n. e. During this period, short treatises - sutras - were created that examined specific problems of the era.

Key Features

They are listed in the work of Dutt and Chatterjee" Advaita Vedanta." The main characteristics are:

Treatises

Initially, thoughts received their canonical, orthodox expression in the form of collections. They numbered more than a thousand hymns, which included approximately 10 thousand verses. The sacred books were based on the traditions of the Aryans and were compiled in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. But the first 4 collections were subsequently united under the common name “Vedas”. Literally this name means “knowledge”. The Vedas are religious and philosophical treatises. They were created by Aryan tribes who came to India after the 15th century. before. e. from the Volga region, Iran, Wed. Asia. Typically the treatises consisted of:

"Holy Scripture", religious hymns (samhitas).
Descriptions of rituals composed by priests and used by them in performing rituals.
Books of Forest Hermits (Aranyakas).
Commentaries on treatises (Upanishads).

Currently, 4 collections have been preserved:

"Rigveda". This is the fundamental, oldest collection. It was formalized around 1200 BC. e.
"Samaveda". It contains songs and sacred spells.
"Yajurveda". This collection contains sacrificial spell formulas.
"Atharvaveda". It contains magical formulas and spells that have been preserved since pre-Aryan times.

Of greatest interest to researchers are the comments that contain philosophy. Upanishad literally translated as “sitting at the teacher’s feet.” The comments provide an interpretation of the contents of the collections.

Brahman

Such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, the concept of God implies a certain creative force. At the same time, they view the Creator as an inexpressible, to some extent, anthropomorphic entity. It acts as an object for prayer and spiritual communication. In this regard, the thinking of Hindus is radically different from the worldview of representatives of other faiths. At the social (exoteric) level of consciousness there are thousands of goddesses and gods. There are 330 million in the classical pantheon. They all have a certain sphere of influence, geographic location, or patronize a certain type of activity. For example, the elephant-headed god Ganesha is believed to promote success and bring good luck in scientific research. In this regard, scientists treat him with awe and respect. A special place is given to the triad in the pantheon. It is represented by three gods in functional and ontological unity: the creator of the world is Brahma, the preserver is Vishnu, the destroyer is Shiva. The crown of the triad is the concept of Brahman. It expresses Absolute Reality. By it we mean the entire fullness (emptiness) of the universe with all the multitude of goddesses and gods. Brahman is seen as the unmanifest reality of all things. The minor gods represent only functionally limited and secondary aspects of him. The purpose of life is to unite with the universe, as it spiritual essence has all the properties that Brahman also possesses. Thus, the identity of man and the creator of the world is proclaimed.

Atman

In philosophy, this is precisely what is internal in man, which has the properties of Brahman. However, it is not some kind of mystical chimera. Atman is a completely accessible, obvious experience of one’s presence at a given moment in time. It is a psychic reality, a feeling of being. In its pure form it is experienced in the form of unlimited freedom. Thinkers use this word to refer to the Higher Self. It represents the personal aspect. Atman is what a person is experiencing right now, that moment in which there is life. The clearer the connection with him, the stronger the sense of reality.

Explanations

During the day, a person is awake and performs some routine activity. At the same time, he is relatively conscious. Meanwhile, if a person is asked to retell what happened to him throughout the day, including mental activity, movements, feelings and all sensations of the organs of perception, he will not be able to remember even a fraction of a percent. People remember only the main points they need in the future. They are associated with projections of their small selves. The rest of the memory goes into the unconscious. It follows from this that a person’s everyday awareness is a relative phenomenon. During sleep, its level drops even more. After waking up, a person can remember only very little, only the most vivid moments of the dream, and most often - nothing. In this state, the sense of reality is significantly reduced. As a result, it is practically not fixed at all. In contrast to sleep, there is a superconscious state. In comparison, even daytime wakefulness can seem like a lack of life and a dream.

Purpose of perception

Why is awareness of the Higher Self necessary? The average person is almost unaware of his existence. He perceives everything through one or another indirect experience. Thus, a person fixes certain objects with his mind and draws conclusions that he really exists, since otherwise there would be no one to perceive this world. Questions about the practical value of awareness of psychic reality are generated by the essence that is firmly attached to the mind. In this case, attention is unable to tear itself away from the mind and go into the depth, reason, and essence of the processes occurring at the moment. When questions arise about the practical value of awareness, it is necessary to pay attention to the following paradox. At the moment of their appearance, the questioner himself is absent. What is the point of asking about consequences if there is no understanding of the original cause of the phenomenon? What is the essence of secondary manifestations of the “I” if a person is not aware of it at all?

Difficulties

Atman is a clear awareness of presence. In ordinary life, people have vague sensations of soft, tasty, hard, boring, important, certain pictures, feelings, and many superficial thoughts. However, where is the Atman among all this? This is a question that forces you to break away from the everydayness of things and look deep into your consciousness. A person can, of course, calm himself down. For example, he may accept as truth that I am the totality of everything. In this case, where is the line that separates presence from absence? If a person understands his self, then it turns out there are two of them. One is watching the other, or they are both watching each other. In this case, a third self arises. It observes the activities of the other two. And so on. All these concepts are mind games.

Enlightenment

The spirit (soul) for a person is considered a transcendental reality. She is God. Even a second awareness of this connection gives joy and awareness of freedom, which does not depend on anything. Atman is life in its absolute aspect, the invisible background is the true essence of a person. In esoteric teaching, the acceptance of psychic reality is called enlightenment. Advaita Vedanta speaks of awareness as that which really, truly is. In yoga, accepting one's presence is described as Purush. It is characterized as subtle, beginningless, cognizing, conscious, eternal, transcendental, contemplating, tasting, spotless, inactive, generating nothing.

Process of awareness

To open the Atman there is no need to do anything, strive for anything, or strain in any way. This first occurs in the form of natural relaxation. The condition is similar to falling asleep, but at the same time the person is awake. After this, individual reality opens up, it opens up to what exists, has always existed and always will be. At this moment, a person realizes that there was nothing else and could not be. This is life itself, naturalness, an unchanging spiritual essence, which nothing can interfere with. It simply exists, it contains different moments. But at the same time, nothing can affect her. At a conscious level, a person understands that energy has neither beginning nor end. Reality cannot increase or decrease. There is no attachment to something, no rejection of anything, since everything that happens is a spontaneous river, in the contemplation of which everything is accepted as it is, without distortion of the Truth or even its interpretation. A person only enjoys the voice of the flow, gives himself to it. The only thing you need is to trust life. Everything flows naturally, it happens on its own.

Doubts

They are an illusion. Doubts chain a person to mental activity, to limited private knowledge. They make you worry and fear, give rise to dissatisfaction and instability. Trust in life will make the consciousness appreciative, insightful, and give illuminating intuitive thinking. It is a manifestation of the connection between the relative and paradoxical world, man and the higher self.

Conclusion

Individuality - what a person considers himself - occurs within him, but it is not himself. Personality and name are the hero, the character of the game. He acts in the world together with other forms. Reality consists only of that which exists against the background of the higher Self. The people around us are different parts of human consciousness. Reality exists, it simply is. It is the true abode of man. Selecting certain objects in order to give them full attention is comparable to choosing one point in infinity to devote all of yourself to it. It has no meaning against the background of real, absolute existence. Reality will tear a person away from it at an infinite distance. But he, frightened by the loss, will rush to her. This is what a person does when he has given himself up to identification with transitory forms. He misses something incomparably more important, majestic, all-encompassing - life itself. The existence of being as such, of any form, is an inexplicable miracle. For the average person, realizing this may seem meaningless and difficult. For followers of Hinduism, understanding the existence of being and one's presence in the world is natural.

Brahman - the central concept of Hindu philosophy - is thought of as an objective reality, an absolute spirit, constituting the fundamental level of every thing, every phenomenon and the world as a whole. It is qualityless and inexpressible, cannot be described rationally or defined through any differential features. Brahman is capable of appearing in many personifications, acquiring the properties of a personal god, but none of them exhausts his completeness. It would seem that, due to its extreme irrationality, Brahman is opposed to man and is inaccessible to knowledge. However, the Upanishads prove the opposite. They introduce the term Atman into the philosophical lexicon and proclaim the principle of consubstantiality and identity of Brahman and Atman. Brahman always dwells in a person, constituting his spiritual basis. Atman is Brahman, captivated by the elemental principles of the material world.

Thus, the comprehension of Brahman means a person's knowledge of himself. However, Atman (aka Brahman) cannot be known either sensually or intellectually. It is not perceived by the senses, since it is different from the body and inaccessible to the intellect, which resides in the world of multitude and always gravitates towards analysis - dividing the whole into parts. Generally speaking, the Atman is distinct from everything that can be objectified as a predicate (“I feel,” “I think,” “I sense,” etc.). He is the absolute subject of all mental states and at the same time a passive contemplator of mental life.

The mechanism of cognition of the Atman is deep meditation, at the peak of which a special state of consciousness is achieved - samadhi (“superconsciousness”, enlightenment”, “insight”, etc.). The prospect of experiencing samadhi exists for every person, but in reality the Atman “meets” Brahman in three cases. The first path is yoga, which includes hermitage, an ascetic lifestyle, adherence to numerous moral rules and prohibitions, and special psychophysical training. The second path is surrendering oneself to the power of God, boundless love for God and devotion to him (bhakti). Finally, the hypothetically existing third path is activity on the part of Brahman himself in the form of a personal god. There is always a chance that God will meet a person halfway and say, as in the “great sayings” of the Upanishads: “I am Brahman,” “One without a second.”

Samsara and karma

Whenever a person dies, a dispute arises: some say that he is gone forever, others say that he is still living. What is the truth?

Kata Upanishad

The concept of samsara goes back to archaic ideas about life after death (about the afterlife and its laws, about the otherworldly wanderings of souls and their relocation to new bodies, about the “path of the gods” and “the path of the ancestors”).

The ancient concept of reincarnation did not take root in the monotheistic religious systems of the West, but in the East it received deep theoretical development and became part of the basic ideas of Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, the doctrine of samsara is recognized by all religious branches and philosophical schools.

This concept has a pronounced evaluative (negative) connotation. Samsara immerses a person in earthly, “this-worldly” existence. It captivates the soul, draws it into the bustle of the world and seduces it with the temptations of an inauthentic, illusory world. A series of alternating lives means multiple deaths and multiple stays in hell. Samsara is the wheel of death, the cycle of suffering. Getting rid of her captivity is metaphorically described as crossing the ocean. The idea of samsara is sometimes considered in connection with the fate of the physical world, which is also drawn into the cycle of creation and destruction (at the end of cosmic eras - kalpas or yugas).

Ideas about samsara are inseparable from the concept of karma - the universal law of causality, the objectively operating principle of retribution. In each of his incarnations, a person performs certain actions that influence the fate of other living beings - ultimately, the state of the world as a whole. Every action taken comes back, like a reflected ray. What was an act becomes destiny in the next life. A murderer will be killed, a rapist will be raped, a liar will be deceived. In other words, a person’s behavior determines what his next incarnation will be (and, above all, in what varna he will be born). This is the law of karma. Hindus say: “As is karma, so is samsara.”

The souls of dead sinners go to hell (“naraku”) and, after temporary torment, return to earthly life. Naraka has several branches (from 7 to several thousand, according to various sources). In each subsequent separation the torment becomes more severe. Sinners are exhausted by insomnia, burned with a hot iron, given to be torn to pieces by animals and snakes, boiled in boiling oil, etc. In which compartment to place the criminal soul, the ruler of the kingdom of the dead, the god Yama, decides. Staying in the last department, where the most inveterate scoundrels end up, goes beyond the limits of samsara. From here there is no return to . Souls remain here until the end of the “day of Brahma” and are destroyed along with the entire universe.

Samsara is the first stage of the afterlife. Its second stage is moksha (nirvana, mukti), the merging of the souls of especially deserved righteous people with Brahman. Moksha means the exit from samsara and is understood as the highest and eternal bliss.

Mayan

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In early Vedic texts, Maya is interpreted as a manifestation of magical powers, the ability of asuras and gods to create illusions. In the epic and later Upanishads, Maya is viewed as the creative force of the one God: “The universe is Maya, and the Lord of the universe is the master of this Maya” (Shvetashvatara Upanishad). God's energy is also called shakti. Maya, like shakti, is often identified with the physical world, matter (prakrta). Thus maya = prakrta = shakti.

In Advaita Vedanta (philosophical school), Maya is the name given to the illusion that impedes the knowledge of Brahman. Maya is the absolute illusion mistaken for the absolute reality. It is her fault that a person feels thrown into a multiple and dichotomous world and is not aware of the substitution. He trusts maya due to avidya - transcendental ignorance. Maya and avidya are the cause of samsaric existence.

The doctrine of Maya as a world illusion is so important for Advaita Vedanta that it even gave it a second name - Mayavada (“doctrine of Maya”). It is in this meaning that the concept of maya was used by a number of European philosophers (primarily A. Schopenhauer).

There is an interesting philosophical paradox associated with the concept of maya. The statement “Maya is identical with Brahman” (or “Maya is real”) is as true as the statement “Maya is not identical with Brahman” (or “Maya is unreal”). The fact is that, on the one hand, Maya is not a reality, in contrast to Brahman (hence, not identical to it). But on the other hand, Brahman is the only reality that includes everything that can be imagined, including Maya (hence, it is also Brahman).

Hindu concept of time

The mythological chronology adopted in Hinduism is exceptionally complex and amazes with the scale of its time perspectives.

The largest unit of world time is the lifetime of Brahma and the universe he created. The Creator of the world is not eternal. He lives 100 “own” years (equal to 311,040,000,000,000 “human” years), after which mahapralaya (great destruction) occurs, as a result of which not only the material world and the world of the gods perish, but also Brahma himself. Space disappears and chaos reigns. Over time, the chaos is ordered, and after as many years as Brahma’s life lasted, a new creator and a new universe are born, and the next cycle of kalpas begins.

Kalpa is a less grandiose, compared to the life of Brahma, unit of chronology. It consists of two halves - the “day” and “night” of the creator. His “day” is the time of life of the physical world and the host of gods. As “night” approaches, pralaya occurs - the destruction of everything that inhabits the universe, and the universe itself: 12 (according to another version - 70) suns appear in the sky and burn it to the ground. For billions of years, the cosmos plunges into oblivion, but “in the morning” Brahma again performs the act of creation, and the world is reborn.

One kalpa ("day" and "night" of Brahma) = 24,000 "divine" years (meaning all the gods except Brahma himself) = 8,640,000,000 "human" years (1000 human years = 1 day of the gods).

The first half of the kalpa - the "day" of Brahma, which is 4,320,000,000 "human" years - is in turn divided into 1000 mahayugas (or 4000 yugas) or 14 manvantaras ("periods of Manu"). Mahayuga and Manvantara are two different principles of dividing the “day of Brahma” into shorter time periods.

Mahayuga is a cycle of four successive eras (yugas): Kritayuga, Tretayuga, Dvaparayuga and Kaliyuga. The concept of yuga, like the concept of kalpa, allows us to structure world time by dividing it into quantitatively defined periods. But the category of yuga also includes a very important qualitative component. Time is unequal in its ethical meaning. Within the Mahayuga, the spiritual state of humanity changes for the worse from era to era until it comes into complete decline. Therefore, each of the four yugas has its own name and a different time span from other eras.

Kritayuga (or Satyayuga) is the “golden age” of humanity, the time of its integrity and spiritual purity. During this period, people are kind and fair, do not know vice, worship one God and honor one Veda.

Tretayuga is the time of the appearance of the first vices. Sacrifice, a sign of human guilt, is universally included in cult practice. Justice is gradually disappearing from the world, but the worship of the gods is still vital for many.

During the period of Dvaparayuga, evil and vices penetrate deeply into the world of people. Diseases appear. The Veda is divided into four parts; a person no longer performs religious duties, because he no longer sees the point in it.

During Kaliyuga, humanity experiences an era of deep spiritual degradation. People forget about gods and virtue. Women indulge in debauchery, men destroy each other in wars, rulers rob their subjects. The righteous are poor, but the criminals prosper. This is a time of anger, lies and greed. People are struck by serious illnesses and their lives become short.

Kalpa is divided into 14 manvantaras - “periods of Manu”, each of which includes the rebirth and death of humanity. One manvantara is equal to 71 mahayuga, or 306,720,000 “human” years. Each of the manvantaras is ruled by one of the teachers of the law bearing that name.

What, according to Hinduism, are the time coordinates of the modern world? Now is the sixth millennium of Kaliyuga, which began (in terms of our chronology) at midnight from February 17 to 18, 3102 BC. e. This Kaliyuga is included in the 28th Mahayuga and the 7th Manvantara of the current kalpa, which is the first day of the 51st year of the life of Brahma and is called Varaha (that is, “boar”, since in this kalpa Vishnu is incarnated as a boar). Manu Vaivasvata (who created the “Laws of Manu”) rules today’s manavantara.

Philosophical schools

Orthodox darshans

The European term "philosophy" in Hinduism does not have a clear equivalent. Hindus operate with the concepts of brahma vidya (knowledge of the absolute), darshan (intellectual vision), anvikshika (reflective research). The term “darshana” also denotes a direction in philosophy (school). Darshans are divided into orthodox (recognizing the authority of the Vedas) and unorthodox. Usually there are six orthodox schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Mimamsa. Among the unorthodox schools is the Lokayata.

Sankhya

Sankhya (meditation, number, calculation) is one of the earliest philosophical systems of Hinduism. Many Samkhya ideas are already found in the middle and later Upanishads (for example, in the Maitri Upanishad).

The founder of Samkhya is considered to be the semi-mythical sage Kapila (until the 6th century BC), whose aphorisms (Sankhya Sutras) were kept in the oral tradition for centuries and probably formed the basis of the Samkhya-karika of Ivarakrishna (III-IV centuries AD .), making up the so-called “Golden Seventies”. This work is considered the basic text of Samkhya. In ancient times and during the early Middle Ages, Samkhya was very popular. In the 15th century, its tradition ceased.

The classical Samkhya created by Ishvarakrishna is dualistic and non-theistic: spirit (purusha) and matter (prakrita) are considered in it as completely independent substances from each other, while the existence of a single absolute (both in personal and impersonal form) is denied.

According to Samkhya, the world has a dual nature, that is, it consists of material and spiritual principles. Prakriti (nature) is the changeable material substance of existence. Purusha (personality) is his eternal and unchanging spiritual basis, the world “I”. Man is material and spiritual at the same time. The inner spiritual “I” (purusha) exists in every person, so there are many purushas, but they are substantially identical.

Purusha is absolutely passive and inactive, he is not involved in any material processes (changes in the states of prakriti), remaining in the position of an observer.

Prakriti resides in one of the three gunas (qualities):

peace and balance (sattva);
activity (rajas);
passive inertia (tamas).

In its original passive state, prakriti is one, qualityless and indefinable. However, in the presence of purusha, it becomes activated, acquires the ability for self-movement and self-development, changes its states and unfolds into various modifications, or types, of existence - tattvas (in total, Samkhya has 25 tattvas).

Samkhya explores the traditional problem of spiritual liberation for Hinduism in the context of the doctrine of purusha and prakriti. According to Samkhya, purusha identifies itself with prakriti due to transcendental delusion (avidya). As a result, matter comes into motion. Its first tattva is the emergence of the “world mind” (mahat). The consequence of the further deployment of prakriti is the formation of the macrocosm and, at the same time, the emergence of structures and levels of the subject (person) that correlate with it.

Note that Samkhya classifies all levels and types of the psyche (with the exception of purusha - substratum consciousness) to states of prakriti, that is, it considers them forms of matter, not spirit. The main types of mental: chitta (psyche), manas (mind), buddhi (awareness), ahamkara (selfishness, egoism).

Activated prakriti is involved in the cycle of samsara. Identifying with prakriti, purusha perceives itself as a prisoner of samsara. However, this perception is erroneous - due to the initial substantial difference, purusha and prakriti cannot have a “common fate”. The consequence of delusion is suffering (duhkha), interpreted by Samkhya in a completely Buddhist way. Sankhya convinces of the need to “dis-identify” spirit and matter, “disconnect” prakriti and purusha (pure consciousness), so that the latter realizes itself to be “in its own nature.” At the same time, he does not connect with either a personal god or an impersonal absolute - the reality of both is denied by classical Samkhya.

Realizing oneself as a purusha is kaivalya. Practical methods for achieving kaivalya were developed in yogic practices (Samkhya, in general, is considered the theoretical foundation of yoga).

Yoga

He who has conquered himself is his own ally, but he who does not control himself is... hostile to himself.

Bhagavad Gita

The word “yoga” has up to 20 meanings in Sanskrit and is derived from the Sanskrit “yuj” (“to connect”, “to unite”). Yoga is not a doctrine, but a spiritual practice that opens the way to achieving samadhi, to the unity of the universal and the individual, the merging of Brahman and Atman. In other words, yoga opens the path to God through knowledge of man.

Yoga has been practiced in India since ancient times and dates back to pre-Aryan tantra. Over the centuries, various types of yoga have been developed, offering different ways of physical and spiritual improvement: razha yoga (yoga of knowledge), karma yoga (yoga of action), upasana yoga (yoga of commitment), mantra yoga (yoga of reciting sacred words), laya yoga (yoga of mind perception), kundali yoga (method of awakening energies), hatha yoga (method of improving the body), etc.

“Eight limb yoga”, as one of the orthodox darshans of Brahmanical philosophy, developed in the 2nd-3rd centuries BC. e., with the creation of the yoga sutras, the author of which is considered Patanjali. The founder of darshana summarized the centuries-old experience in the development of practical yoga and gave its understanding. In the interpretation of Patanjali, yoga is a system of practical methods that allow you to separate the immortal soul from the mortal body, stop the chain of rebirths and merge with Brahman. Thus, the goal of yoga is to overcome the initial gap between the spiritual essence of man and the cosmic integrity of the absolute.

Raja yoga (“royal yoga”), which to one degree or another includes other types of yoga, is a comprehensive and most intense method of achieving spiritual peaks. The Raja Yoga complex is complex. Mastering it requires endurance, perseverance, asceticism, discipline, constant training and the ability to put your entire body, all the physiological processes occurring in it, under the control of the will. To connect with the world soul, eight steps must be completed:

Yama (self-restraint, renunciation of five types of wrong behavior);
niyama (discipline of commands, observance of the five immutable rules);
asana (correct posture for concentration);
pranayama (breath control);
pratyahara (control of body organs and sense organs; distraction of sense organs from stimuli);
dharana (concentration, focus);
dhyana (meditation - internal contemplation of an object, maintained by attention);
samadhi (enlightenment, superconsciousness).

The first two branches (yama and niyama) are intended to prepare the student for more complex levels of practice by clearing his mind of wrong thoughts and actions.

The concept of Yama, meaning self-restraint and moral self-control, correlates with the image of the Vedic god of death Yama. This god did not immediately find his calling. Initially, he was seen as a solar deity, then as one of the twins of the Lord of Truth. The Rig Veda also speaks of Yama as the progenitor of humanity. By becoming "the first to die", Yama opened the path of death for others. He is the ruler of the dead and the fairest of judges. The dharma (divine law) embodied in him is a condition for immortality, therefore the god of death is also considered the guardian of immortality. At this stage, the beginning yogi must follow a number of principles. He must be restrained in everything, be able to limit himself in food, avoid other temptations, suppress the sexual instinct, refuse unnecessary expenditure of vital force, be focused and self-absorbed. The main pits:

refraining from causing harm or using violence towards other carriers of life (including animals and plants) in thoughts, words or actions (ahimsa).
Ahimsa presupposes strict vegetarianism - refusal to eat animal food;
renunciation of lies, truthfulness in thoughts, words and deeds (satya);
refusal to appropriate what belongs to another, non-acquisitiveness (asteya);
renunciation of sensual pleasures and waste of sexual energy in any form, chastity (brahmacharya);
suppression of greed, selfishness (aparigraha).

Secondly, the yogi should develop the best human qualities and inclinations. Basic niyamas:

moral and physical purity (saucha);
contentment, satisfaction (saitosh);
asceticism, concentration, control of desires (tapas);
love of knowledge, study of sacred texts (sradhyaya);
willingness to submit to the divine will (is-rarapranidhana).

The next stage of Raja Yoga is mastering body poses (asanas) that contribute to the awakening of spiritual energies. If the asana is performed correctly, the body can remain motionless for many hours. Over time, the yogi becomes extremely resilient and invulnerable to disease.

A more complex stage is the art of correctness (pranayama), understood as the control of life (prana). The yogi achieves deep and rhythmic breathing and knows how to hold it without harming his health. Having mastered the breathing technique, he gains the ability to control his psychological state, disconnect from external influences, not react to any stimuli and focus on himself. This state is called pratyahara - discipline of the senses. This is the last of the preparatory steps.

The listed five stages of Raja Yoga constitute its “external branches”. This is the stage that precedes spiritual practice itself (“internal branches”) and includes three steps:

a discipline of the mind (dharana), which presupposes the ability to concentrate on one or another spiritual object (this can be a part of the yogi’s body, an abstract idea, or Brahman itself). Brahmanism understands this stage as the first step towards a state of holiness and merging with the absolute;

contemplation (dhana) - comprehension of the essence of an object, the second step on the path to Brahman. Concentrated thought deepens, becomes more abstract and irrational and, as yogis say, penetrates the laws of the universe and the meaning of all things;

trance, enlightenment, superconsciousness (samadha) is the last stage at which the spiritual “I” (purusha) completely separates itself from the body (prakriti). A state of bliss, inner freedom, and “hovering” above the world arises. At this moment, karma is destroyed, and the person breaks out of samsaric captivity.

Ancient yoga is still widely practiced by Hindus and is an integral part of modern Indian culture. In the West, the number of yoga adherents also numbers in the millions.

Vaisesika

The original text of the darshana is the Vaisheshika Sutras (“vishesha” - “special”), attributed to the sage Kanada (VI-V centuries BC).

The ideas of Canada were further developed in the work of Prashastapada (IV century) “Padartha-dharma-sangraha” (“Compedium of attributes peculiar to called objects”). The school is characterized by a consistent and deep systematic approach that completely exhausts the problems posed.

Vaisheshikas focus on ontological problems interpreted in a materialistic manner. According to Prashastapada, real existence has 6 types (categories):

substance;
quality;
action;
community;
peculiarity;
inherence.

The first three categories really exist. The next three are products of the activity of the mind (categories of logic). Thus, in the doctrine of being, two layers are distinguished - cosmological and reflective.

In cognition, the main role was given to the category “special” (which gave the doctrine its name), reflecting the real diversity of substances (possessing quality and action). Vaisesika recognizes nine substances: earth, light, ether, time, space, soul, mind.

Nyaya

The founder of Nyaya (method, reasoning, way) is Gotama, author of the Nyaya Sutras (III-II centuries BC). Later, the original sutras were supplemented by secondary texts, among which the most significant is the commentary of Uddyotakara (7th century). There are two stages in the history of the school: the ancient Nyaya and the new Nyaya. The formation of the school took place in heated controversy with Buddhists.

The school's interests are focused on problems of the laws of thinking (methodology and technology of thinking, laws of logic, etc.). The merits of Nyaya include the theory of inference and the doctrine of the forms of syllogism. In Nyaya, a syllogism, unlike in ancient Greek, has five parts: premise, proof, illustration, application of proof, conclusion.

The cosmological positions of the Nyayas are generally close to the positions of the Vaisesikas:

there is a material universe consisting of , the combination of which forms all objects;

Besides atoms, there are also souls. The universe is inhabited by countless souls, which can be in a free state or connected with material atoms;

God exists as the highest regulating spiritual principle, but he is not the creator of souls and atoms. The manager God (Ishvara) only creates combinations of atoms, ensures the connection of souls with atoms and breaks this connection.

In epistemology, Nyaikas recognize the existence of four types of simple acts of cognition: sensation, inference, analogy and authoritative testimony of other people. False knowledge is interpreted as mistaking one object for another.

Studying Indian philosophical texts without understanding the basics of Nyaya is difficult, therefore, for a long time, the teaching of this darshana has been included in the traditional education system as one of the fundamental subjects, such as grammar.

Mimamsa

Mimamsa (or, more precisely, purva mimansa - “first study”, “early study”) studied and substantiated the ritual, which goes back to the Vedic tradition. Darshana is based on the Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini (IV-III centuries BC) and commentaries on them, among which the works of Shabara (III century), Kumarila Bhatta (VII-VIII centuries) and Prabhakara, his contemporary, stand out.

The founders of the Mimamsa argued that the Vedas cannot be considered a revelation in the full sense of the word, since the religious positions and philosophical ideas contained in them require logical justification. Moreover, the study of sacred books, like any other methods of gaining knowledge, is by no means a guarantee of achieving moksha - liberation from the samsaric state. Moksha cannot be achieved on a rational basis at all. The path to liberation is strict observance of dharma, social and religious duty, namely, the performance of rituals and submission to the restrictions and prohibitions imposed by caste. Following dharma can lead to moksha even regardless of the individual's aspirations.

Like Samkhya, Mimamsa recognized the existence of spiritual and material principles, but, unlike Samkhya, it paid much less attention to philosophy than to religion, or more precisely, to religiosity. Having developed during the heyday of Brahmanism (“the religion of rituals”), Mimamsa became its self-reflection and philosophical understanding.

Vedanta

Vedanta is the leading darshana of Brahmanism, based on the Upanishads. The creator of Vedanta is considered to be the philosopher Badarayana (around the 5th century) - the author of the Brahma Sutras (religious and philosophical aphorisms) outlining the essence of this system. The Triple Canon of Vedanta includes, in addition to the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutra (or Vedanta Mutra) Badaryana.

The focus of Vedantic philosophers is on the question of the relationship between Atman and Brahman. Historically, three schools of Vedanta have developed, each of which defended its own understanding of this problem. Within the framework of darshan, the problem of the relationship between Brahman and the world, the path to liberation from samsara, etc. was also explored.

Vedanta is the most powerful and most authoritative philosophical movement in Hinduism, containing the basic concepts of Hindu philosophy. In the late Middle Ages, Vedanta gradually replaced other darshans, integrating some provisions of Samkhya and yoga, and became the generally accepted theology of Hinduism.

During the period of national struggle for independence, Vedanta began to be perceived as a symbol of the greatness and spiritual sovereignty of Indian culture.

The Vedantic basis can be traced in the works of Vivekananda, Aurobindo Ghosh, Ramakrishna, Ram Mohan Roy and others.

Advaita Vedanta

Historically, the first school of Vedanta is Advaita (non-dual, or non-dual) Vedanta, created by Gaudaiadopa (6th century) and Shankara (8th-9th centuries). Its original principle is expressed in the aphorism: “Brahman is real, the world is unreal, the soul is the same as Brahman.”

From the point of view of Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is the non-dual Absolute. Non-duality means that Atman is identical to Brahman, coincides with Brahman. Their separation is apparent. Man is not the bearer of an “individual” spirit, since Atman is Brahman. The division of the world into an object and a subject is an illusion (maya) that arises as a result of avidya - transcendental ignorance. After all, in reality the world simply... does not exist. Only Brahman is real. A sage who has comprehended and experienced the identity of Atman and Brahman through jnana (irrational intuitive knowledge) is freed from ignorance and from samsaric bondage.

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta

Vishishtadvaita (limited non-dual) Vedanta, created in the second half of the 11th century. Ramanuja is a theistic and personalistic teaching that challenges the provisions of Advaita Vedanta "on all points." From Ramanuja's point of view:

Brahman is a personal God, creator and ruler of the world, identical with Vishnu;

Atman does not coincide with Brahman, but is a part of it (thus, Brahman is “greater” than Atman);

the universe and God are related as body and soul; Maya is not an illusion, but a manifestation of the creative creative power of God;

liberation lies not in experiencing the identity of Self and God, but in achieving their relative unity through bhakti - all-consuming love.

Dvaita Vedanta

Dvaita Vedanta (dual Vedanta) was expounded in the 13th century by the brahmana Madhva, who develops the concept of Ramanuja and subjects the theses of Advaita Vedanta to an even more radical revision. The author of the doctrine rejects the possibility of even a relative consubstantiality of the “I” (soul) and Brahman, acting exclusively as a personal God. Following Ramanuja, Madhva recognizes the highest value of bhakti and understands moksha as a loving union of the soul and God, similar to the intimacy of lovers. In addition to these main directions of Vedanta, there were many intermediate movements (Nimbarka, Vallabha, etc. systems), whose authors explored the same range of issues.

In the liberal reformist directions of Hinduism of the 19th-20th centuries (for example, in the Brahman Society - Brahmosamaj, created by the Bengali scientist Rammohan Roy) attempts were made to use some of the provisions of Vedanta for the reform of Hinduism. It was proposed to monotheize Hinduism by establishing the cult of Brahman as the one and only personal God - the provider and creator.

In the 20th century, the famous religious philosopher Aurobido Ghose made an attempt to reconcile the three main directions of Vedanta based on the concept of evolutionism.

Unorthodox Darshans

Unorthodox darshans did not recognize the authority of the Vedas, denied the doctrines of karma, samsara and moksha, the expediency of sacrifices, etc. Lokayata is one of these kinds of “nihilistic” systems popular in ancient times and the Middle Ages. The origin of the lokayata is associated with the mythical sage Brihaspati; individual atheistic and anti-Vedic attacks are attributed to the legendary Charvaka (therefore the Lokayata is sometimes also called Charvaka). The school's texts have been lost.

Lokayata derives all the diversity of existence from material causes. The physical world, as well as consciousness, mind and senses, according to the Lokayata, consists of four: earth, fire, water and air (some texts supplement this list with ether). The elements exist forever and are immutable. The properties of objects depend on what elements they are made of and in what proportions these elements are combined. After the death of a living creature, the connection between the elements disintegrates, and they become part of inanimate nature.

The epistemology of Lokayata follows from its ontology: the senses can perceive objects insofar as they both consist of identical elements (“like is cognized by like”).

Lokayata ethics are oriented towards hedonism. The Lokayatikas saw the purpose of life in obtaining pleasures, primarily sensual ones.

The naive materialism of Lokayata, which forces its adherents to deny the existence of extrasensory and supersensible objects: God, soul, the afterlife, etc., often became a reason for ridicule from opponents.

: eternal, unchanging spiritual essence. The Absolute, aware of its own existence. A term used to describe the higher self, man and all living things. After Awakening, a person knows himself as “Atma” - I am not this, I am THAT, “I am the absolute, and I know it” - the absolute (man) realizes its existence.

Buddhism

Notes

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Synonyms:

See what “Atman” is in other dictionaries:

- (Sanskrit atman oneself; body; essence, soul, spirit, world spirit) cardinal concept ind. thoughts, meaning the beginningless and enduring, “substantial” spiritual principle of the individual, ontologically external to his body and the entire psychomental... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Atman- (Sanskrit аtman – dem, tynys, jan) − Brahmanist – Hindu dіni dаstүr men philosophiyada (Sankhya, yoga mektepteri men vedantanyin orthodoxies bagyttars) arbir zattyn manin zane azindig in bildiretin ұgym: zhan, rukh, absolute subject, Men. Atman... Philosophy terminerdin sozdigi

Modern encyclopedia

One of the central concepts of Indian philosophy and the religion of Hinduism, the individual (subjective) spiritual principle; starting from the Upanishads and especially in Vedanta, the identity of atman with brahman, the cosmic (objective) spiritual principle, is affirmed... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Sanskrit breath, soul, myself) in ancient Indian religious speculation and the teachings emanating from it, a concept denoting the all-pervading subjective individual spiritual principle, “I”, soul. The doctrine of A. is set forth in the Upanishads, where A. is a concept,... ... The latest philosophical dictionary

- (Chinese: Into the substantial “I”). Source: Religious Dictionary... Religious terms

- (Sanskrit âtman), one of the cardinal concepts in the religious and mythological system of Hinduism. In Vedic literature it is used as a pronoun (“I”, “myself”), then in the meaning of “body” and, finally (primarily in the Upanishads), as a designation... ... Encyclopedia of Mythology

- [Skt. atman breath, spirit] in Hinduism (HINDUISM): the deep essence of personality, which does not change during reincarnation (REINCARNATION), the highest spirit. Dictionary of foreign words. Komlev N.G., 2006 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Noun, number of synonyms: 3 soul (59) beginning (92) purusha (6) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin... Synonym dictionary

Atman- ATMAN, one of the central concepts of Indian philosophy and the religion of Hinduism, an individual (subjective) spiritual principle; starting from the Upanishads and especially in Vedanta, the identity of Atman with brahman, the cosmic (objective) spiritual principle, is affirmed... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

Spiritual knowledge and archetypes of philosophical cultures of the East and West Monograph, Semushkin A., Nizhnikov S., This study is aimed at a systematic explanation of the problems and key concepts of philosophy developed in the cultures of the East and West. At the same time, attention is focused on the general and special in… Category: Philosophical works
Spiritual knowledge and archetypes of philosophical cultures of the East and West, A. V. Semushkin, S. A. Nizhnikov, This study is aimed at a systematic explanation of the problems and key concepts of philosophy developed in the cultures of the East and West. At the same time, attention is focused on the general and special in... Category: