Russian philosophers of the 19th and 20th centuries. The most famous philosophers The materialistic direction of Russian philosophy
Philosophy forces us to ask questions and reflect on everything we take for granted. So today we have made for you a selection of outstanding thinkers, both modern and past, so that you move your rusty convolutions at your leisure, picking up any of the works of the men and women below.
1. Hannah Arendt
Hannah Arendt is one of the most famous political philosophers of the modern age. After being expelled from Germany in 1933, she seriously thought about the burning issues of our time and began to diligently seek answers to the main questions of life, the universe and everything in general. Completely immersed in herself and in her reflections on politics, civil society, the origins of totalitarianism, evil and forgiveness, Hanna tried through her search to come to terms with the terrible political events of that time. And although it is rather difficult to classify Arendt's ideas according to one general scheme, Hanna in each of her works (and there are more than 450 of them) calls on humanity to "thoroughly think about what we are doing."
The most famous works:
"The Origins of Totalitarianism", 1951
"The Banality of Evil: Eichmann in Jerusalem", 1963
2. Noam Chomsky
A professor of linguistics at MIT by day and a critic of American US politics by night, Noam Chomsky is an active philosopher outside and within academia. His political comments hit not in the eyebrow, but in two eyes at once. This philosopher asks questions aimed at creating new conclusions for the public. Chomsky changed the face of linguistics in the mid-20th century by publishing his classification of formal languages, called the Chomsky hierarchy. And the New York Times Book Review stated that "Noam Chomsky is perhaps the most important intellectual alive today."
The most famous works:
"Syntactic Structures", 1957
"The problem of knowledge and freedom", 1971
Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, 1992
"Hegemony or the struggle for survival: the US quest for world domination", 2003
3. Alain de Botton
The English writer and philosopher, member of the Royal Society of Literature and television presenter Alain de Botton is sure that, as in ancient Greece, modern philosophy should also have some practical value for society. His works, documentaries and discussions touch upon completely different aspects of human life, ranging from the professional work sphere to the problems of personal development and the search for love and happiness.
The most famous works:
"Experiences of love", 1997
Status Concern, 2004
"Architecture of Happiness", 2006
4. Epicurus
Epicurus is an ancient Greek philosopher, born on the Greek island of Samos, and the founder. The great thinker of the past categorically insisted that the way to happiness lies through the search for pleasure. Surround yourself with friends, stay self-sufficient and don't go on the rampage - this is his unchanging principle. The word "Epicurean" has become synonymous with gluttony and idleness due to provisions taken out of context. Well, we invite you to personally read the works of the famous philosopher and draw your own conclusions.
The most famous works:
Collection of aphorisms "Main thoughts"
5. Arne Ness
Alpinist, public figure and philosopher, originally from Norway, Arne Naess was a major player in the global environmental movement and the author of a unique point of view in the debate about the destruction of the natural world. Ness is considered the creator of the concept of "deep ecology" and the founder of the eponymous movement.
The most famous works:
"Interpretation and Accuracy", 1950
6. Martha Nussbaum
American Martha Nussbaum talks loudly about social justice based on ancient philosophy Aristotle, where each person is the bearer of an inalienable dignity. Nussbaum argues that, regardless of intelligence, age or gender, every member of the human race should be treated in this respectful manner. Martha is also sure that society does not function for mutual benefit, but for the sake of love for each other. In the end, no one has canceled the power of positive thinking.
The most famous works:
“Not for profit. Why Democracy Needs the Humanities”, 2014
7. Jean-Paul Sartre
His name has practically become synonymous. The French philosopher, playwright and novelist, who created his main works between 1930 and 1940, bequeathed to his descendants the great idea that man is doomed to freedom. However, we have already written about this, and if by a fatal coincidence you missed this article, you can fill in the gap
The most famous works:
"Nausea", 1938
"Behind Closed Doors", 1943
8. Peter Singer
Since the publication of his famous book Animal Liberation in 1975, Australian philosopher Peter Singer has become a cult figure for all animal rights activists. Get ready for this dude to make you rethink your food on your plate and inspire you to make small sacrifices for those less fortunate.
The most famous works:
Animal Liberation, 1975
9. Baruch Spinoza
Although the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza lived in the 17th century, his philosophy is in many ways still relevant today. In his major work, Ethics, Spinoza describes his subject matter as if it were a mathematical equation and protests against the idea of the absolute freedom of the human person, arguing that even our mind works according to the principles of the physical laws of nature.
The most famous works:
"Ethics", 1674
10. Slavoj Zizek
The Slovenian philosopher, cultural critic and founder of the Ljubljana School of Philosophy Slavoj Zizek has become a significant figure in modern pop culture. Slava calls himself a "militant atheist", and his books instantly sell out in huge numbers and become bestsellers.
The most famous works:
“The Year of the Impossible. The art of dreaming is dangerous”, 2012
"Welcome to the desert of reality", 2002
"Doll and dwarf. Christianity Between Heresy and Revolt”, 2009
Berdyaev Nikolai Alexandrovich(1874-1948). “The soul is creative
chesky process, activity. The human spirit must always trans-
to value, to rise to that which is higher than man.
Berdyaev participated in the socialist movement in his youth. By-
Later, he departed from it and took up the development of philosophical and existential
social outlook. In 1922 he was expelled from Soviet Russia
these. From 1926 to 1939 he was the chief editor of the religious and philosophical
of the journal "The Way". Died at work desk.
In his numerous writings, Berdyaev defended the primacy of the individual
over society. Personality is characterized in the horizons of free
dy, spirituality, creativity. Berdyaev repeatedly gave his treatises
ku fate of Russia. He believed that Russia owns the messianic
role.
Wittgenstein Ludwig(1889-1951). "Philosophical problems
ka has the form: "I'm at a dead end." “What is your goal in philosophy? -
show the fly the way out of the flytrap...”.
Wittgenstein is one of the key figures in the entire philosophy of the 20th century.
Wittgenstein's behavior is unusual, and some actions seem ex-
travagant: he participates in the First World War, is captured
to the Italians, carries in his knapsack a philosophical masterpiece written by him, from
renounces a huge inheritance, builds his sister according to his own design
that house, is going to leave for a monastery, to become a conductor of a symphony
orchestra, visits the USSR in order to study the northern peoples,
teaches kids arithmetic at school.
In philosophy, Wittgenstein made his name famous for his analysis of language.
Gadamer Hans Georg(born 1900). “Whoever wants to think must ask
sew." “Waiting for an answer already presupposes that the questioner
touched by tradition and hears its call.
Gadamer is a student of Heidegger. Worked at the University of Leipzig
aunt, moved from the GDR to the FRG. In 1960 he published the book Truth
and method”, which brought him fame.
Gadamer is considered the head of the modern hermeneutic school.
Husserl Edmund(1859-1938). “Philosophy must always fulfill
take on in European humanity its function - archon (higher
th official. - VC.) of all mankind."
Worked at Freiburg University (Germany). After the arrival
yes to the power of the Nazis Husserl because of his Jewish origin
walking was deprived of the opportunity to take part in the official
noah philosophical life of Europe. In solitude, abandoned by all his
their philosopher friends, besides two young assistants, he
continued to work hard. Already after the death of Husserl, the case
but yesterday's student who visited his relatives, 27-year-old
Belgian van Breda, to his great surprise, discovered the
copies of 47,000 pages. Secretly, through diplomatic channels
mail Husserl's archive was taken to the Belgian city of Levey.
To this day, this archive serves as the documentary basis of the multi-volume
Husserlians.
Husserl is the founder of phenomenology. He dreamed of making a filo
sophia by rigorous science and thereby develop tools for
overcoming the crises of mankind.
Derrida Jacques(born 1930). “... What is happening today in our
world and our "modernity" ... All my efforts are efforts to dis-
deal with this immense question.
Derrida is the leader of modern French philosophy. He popu-
lyaren all over the world. In philosophy, he took his rightful place thanks to the development
his method of deconstruction. In order to understand something,
to distinguish; the present has both the past and the future.
Carnap Rudolph(1891-1970). “... Explanations with the help of facts
are in fact explanations in disguise with
the power of laws."
Carnap - Austrian philosopher, member of the famous Vienna
mug. In 1935 he emigrated to the USA, where he had numerous
students. One of the founders of logical positivism. Dreaming
about creating such a logical system that would represent if
not all, then as many empirical facts as possible.
Quine Willard van Orman(born 1908). “To be is to be known
associated variable.
Quine - the elder of American analytic philosophers, pre-
red logician, student of the English philosopher Russell. Successfully
publicizes his work in the United States. According to Quine, philosophy
should be based on experimental facts, have a clear lo-
geic form. What and how exists, a person can understand only
based on the theory, its laws, which are formed in the form of equations
with variables. Hence his famous definition given in
mi as an epigraph.
Lenk Hans(born 1935). “Never before Western-Western-European-
sky man should not have been as responsible as he is today.
Lenk is a typical Western philosopher of the late 20th century, and the philo-
sofa of a new formation. Becoming an Olympic champion in rowing at the age of 25
le (as part of the eight rowers), he then devoted himself entirely to fi-
losophy. Traveled the whole world, wrote about a hundred monographs, contributed
significant contribution, perhaps more than anyone else, to the de-
to unite the efforts of philosophers from different continents and countries.
He did a lot for the mutual enrichment of German and American fi-
losophy. Very friendly towards many Russians
sky philosophers.
Lenk's philosophy is distinguished by its practical orientation, ori-
focus on the most topical issues of science, technology, sociology,
sharpened, conscientious attitude to life.
Popper Karl Raimund(1902-1994). “... Freedom is more important than equality
wa."
Popper was born in Vienna, fleeing Nazism moved to New Zealand
Landia, and became a famous philosopher in England. At the age of 17 he moved
in a dilapidated student dormitory, worked for many years in the social
al service, helping children in need. Became a teacher and only
at the age of 35 he took up philosophy professionally. Duration-
For some time he considered himself a socialist, but critically evaluating the social
ism in Russia, criticized Marx's theory
Popper is considered the founder of postpositivism. He showed how
how scientific knowledge grows.
Russell Bertrand(1872-1970). "You don't have to follow the crowd in her
evil deeds." The entry she made in the bible given to Russell
his grandmother. Russell followed this commandment all his life.
Russell is an outstanding British philosopher, mathematician, political
chesky activist, Nobel Prize winner (in literature). All my
life rebelled against every untruth, more than once ended up in prison.
Already an old man, together with the youth, he opposed the manifestations
zeal of militarism.
Russell is the founder of analytic philosophy.
Jean-Paul Sartre(1905-1980). “Regardless of the circumstances
authority, time and place, a person is free to choose himself as a traitor or
hero, coward or conqueror."
Sartre is to France what Russell is to England, and
but, the philosophical conscience of the nation. Sartre is not only a philosopher, but also a writer
tel (in 1964 he was awarded Nobel Prize by letter
tour, which he refused to accept), a politician. He was
participant in the French resistance to fascism, actively supporting
lived in the May 1968 revolt of the Parisian youth.
In the philosophy of Sartre, a supporter of the maximum life immediate
validity. It is said that serious philosophical activity
Sartre began with an episode in a cafe, where he spent the evening with his wife, pi-
clerk Simone de Beauvoir, and a friend, the sociologist Aaron. aron
talked about his trip to Germany, Husserl's philosophy. Uka-
heading for a glass of cocktail, Aron said to Sartre: “If you are a phenomenal
log, then you can judge this cocktail, and this is a real philo-
Sofia". Sartre turned pale with excitement. Yes, he wanted to comprehend philosophy
fiyu not cosmic, but earthly affairs. Sartre began to study diligently
philosophy, visited Germany, wrote his first philosophical
devry.
In philosophy, Sartre is known as one of the founders of the existential
alism. He paid exceptional attention to the theme of freedom, about which, by the way,
ty, the epigraph to this article also testifies.
Heidegger Martin(1889-1976). “However, it is possible that a person
Until now, for centuries, too much action and too little thought
lil."
Heidegger is one of the most original philosophers of the 20th century.
He spent most of his life in Freiburg (Germany). In him
saw a philosopher who would be able to oppose scientific and technical
to the onslaught of a deep thought. And so it happened.
In 1933, Heidegger was elected by the Academic Council of the Freiburg University
university for the post of rector. Heidegger joins the ranks of the Nazi party
ti, while setting the condition that he will not fulfill any
more party functions. Heidegger, according to his own calculations,
it took 10 months to completely disbelieve in Nazism.
He did not break his ties with philosophers of Jewish origin,
despite the incessant demands of the Nazis to disengage
continued to openly use their work with them, and when the minister
culture began to insist on dismissal for political reasons
tivam of one social-democratic professor, who refused
resigned from the post of rector. Nevertheless, the German democrats did not
styles to Heidegger and his Nazi past.
Heidegger understood philosophy as a radical questioning,
karst against frivolity, which cannot be bought for money, but can be
but only through deep thought. Heidegger - basic
hermeneutic maker.
Habermas Jurgen(born 1929). "Modern is an unfinished project."
Habermas is by far the most famous German philosopher.
mania. The fame of Habermas is explained not only by the content of many
pages of philosophical works, but also his journalistic activities
news, responses to the most important events in the country and the world. Habermas
enjoys great respect in the FRG, he is consulted by the most
well-known political figures, he was repeatedly awarded the prestige
ny awards.
In philosophy, Habermas is best known for developing
his theory of a communicative society. He believes that modern
change, modernity always requires work to increase openness
these societies, the establishment of a productive rational dialogue, critical
tics of various kinds of ideologies that do not justify their purpose
and bureaucracies.
SAMARA STATE
THE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS
Syzran branch
Extramural studies
Syzran, st. Lyudinovskaya, 23, tel. 37-12-88
Sedova Olesya Nikolaevna _________________________ .
Full Name
Well 1 group F-107__________________________________.
Speciality Finance and Credit_________________________________.
Test work No. 1 Option 17______________________ .
By discipline Philosophy_______________________________________.
On the topic of Russian philosophy of the 19th-20th centuries ______________________.
Date of receipt of work by the dean's office ______________________
Date of receipt of work at the department ______________________
Date of review of the work ___________________________
Date of return of work to the dean's office _____________________
Date of receipt of work by the student ______________________
Introduction……………………………………………….3
1. Russian philosophy in the XIX-XX century………………..5
2.Slavophiles and Westernizers………………………….9
3.Philosophy of the Russian Enlightenment………………..14
Conclusion…………………………………………….18
List of used literature…………………...19
Introduction.
When it comes to Russian philosophy, a question arises that is inevitable in any historical and philosophical research: is Russian philosophy unconditionally original and how it manifests itself, or is it just a talented popularization, enlightenment, "falling out" of the Western academic tradition and introducing the world the public with the content of peripheral thinking on issues of Russian identity, clothed in non-strict forms of polemics and cultural and philosophical essays.
There is an opinion: since Byzantine culture came to Russia in Christian translations, Greek philosophical thought, the traditions of intellectualism did not reach it; the spread of Christianity meant an introduction to faith, but not to philosophy. Russia entered the church structure of Byzantium, but culturally and philosophically it was limited by the language barrier. Therefore, creative development, philosophical reflection could rely only on their own mental resources. Although individual talents appeared early, on the whole, until the 19th century, Russian philosophy was either a pale imitation of Byzantine models, or an uncritical copying of Western books.
The essence of the opposite point of view lies in the fact that by the time of the baptism of Russia, Byzantine Christianity "forgot about man", began to assert a slavish ethic incompatible with Christian humanism.
Russia, after baptism, with the fervor of a neophyte (convert) perceived the very essence of Christianity - the idea of the likeness of man to God, in the image of Jesus Christ descended into the world and drank the full cup of human suffering. This determined the future features of Russian spirituality with its cult of sacrifice, "sick conscience", non-resistance to evil, as well as the specifics of philosophy, the main subject of which was the Christian ontology of man, ethics in the forms of "fiery journalism"
Focusing on the uniqueness of Russian philosophy, which manifests itself mainly in the development of religious and practical experience by means and forms of philosophizing, leads to the assertion of a "special path" and the opposition of Russian philosophy to Western philosophy, the assertion of the imaginary incompatibility of the domestic philosophical tradition (defined as "living Christianity", " philosophy of suffering and insight") with the tradition of rational reflection of Western Europe.
When it comes to philosophical knowledge, it should be borne in mind that the depth and content of philosophy does not depend on the chronological date of its appearance: the value of philosophy is determined by the content of its own history, its own time. No matter how hard we try to lengthen the historical time of Russian philosophy, it still appears much later than the philosophy of Hellas, or Ancient China, or India. Another thing is that philosophy as a certain worldview, as a picture of the world and human existence has always played a significant role in ancient and medieval Russia. And although its role was less significant than, say, in ancient Greek culture or in Europe in the 5th-12th centuries, it was fundamentally different, i.e. largely coincided with the fate of their own country.
1. Russian philosophy of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
In the middle of the XIX century. in Russia, a materialistic trend in philosophy was formed and developed, represented by A.I. Herzen (1813-1870), N.P. Ogarev (1813-1877), V.G. Belinsky (1811-1848), N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), N.A. Dobrolyubov (1836-1861), D.I. Pisarev (1840-1868), M.A. Antonovich (1835-1918) and others. In socio-political terms, these thinkers belonged to the revolutionary democrats who fought against serfdom and autocratic absolutism.
Herzen, originally a Westerner, gradually leaned towards Slavophilism. He was one of the first in the history of Russian philosophy to make an attempt to critically rework Hegel's dialectic, free it from idealism and combine it with materialism. (Works "Amateurism in Science" and "Letters on the Study of Nature"). Nature, in his opinion, exists objectively, regardless of the consciousness of man and his thinking. Man is a part and crown of nature and obeys its laws. However, it is also "the pinnacle of the historical world." The value of any person lies in a reasonable and morally free act.
The Russian thinker strove to make materialism "philosophically logical", understanding logic as dialectics. At the same time, he called dialectics the algebra of revolution. In epistemology, he made a number of statements about the role of material human activity in cognition. At the same time, the unity of experience and speculation was noted, and knowledge was considered not as an end in itself, but as a means of changing life.
Developing the concept of the philosophy of history, Herzen wrote that the decisive role in history belongs to the people, whose vital activity is as independent of our will as development in nature. History is an objective process guided by people's desire for self-knowledge and conscious activity in the name of freedom.
Another major representative of materialistic philosophy in Russia was N.G. Chernyshevsky. He followed the path of combining philosophical materialism and the dialectical method, using mainly the teachings of Herzen and Feuerbach. His main philosophical works include The Anthropological Principle in Philosophy and The Aesthetic Relationship of Art to Reality.
Social life was explained by Chernyshevsky by the properties and needs of man as a predominantly biological being. He argued that "the principle of the philosophical outlook on life with all its phenomena is the idea developed by the natural sciences about the unity of the human body." At the same time, he believed that there is not and cannot be any special, "philosophical" knowledge of the world, different from natural science.
Chernyshevsky wrote that the world is one and material in nature. He paid considerable attention to the problems of the cognizability of the world, recognizing that human consciousness objectively reflects the world. Along with this, the thinker criticized agnosticism and subjective idealism, paying great attention to practice in cognition. He approached the process of cognition from the position not only of materialism, but also of dialectics, putting forward such principles as concreteness and comprehensiveness.
The original trend in Russian philosophy was the philosophy of unity, presented by V.S. Solovyov (1853-1900), S.N. Trubetskoy (1862-1905), E.N. Trubetskoy (1863-1920), S.N. Bulgakov (1871-1944), P.A. Florensky (1882-1933), L.P. Karsavin (1882-1952). The spiritual source of the creativity of these thinkers was the Orthodox world outlook and the basic provisions of theology. The ideal of the philosophy of unity was value as a complete state of the world and man. The task of philosophy was to understand the meaning of all objects and phenomena, rooted in God, internally correlated with him.
One of the largest representatives of the Russian religious and philosophical renaissance was V.S. Solovyov. He outlined the initial principles of his philosophical system in such works as The Crisis of Western Philosophy, The Philosophy of Integral Knowledge, and Critique of Abstract Principles. Solovyov argued that philosophy can and must exist in order to "turn all its means to achieve the common spiritual goal of knowledge, determined by theology." He is the creator of the metaphysical system of "whole knowledge", declaring the synthesis of science, philosophy and religion to be the highest task for the development of mankind. Vladimir Solovyov was the first in Russia to create a large and independent philosophical system based on the ideas of Christianity and German dialectical idealism.
The main place in Solovyov's philosophy is occupied by the idea of unity, which is realized in his ontology, epistemology, anthropology, historiosophy. He tried to create a picture of the universe based on the idea of God as an absolute supernatural ideal principle. He considered life as a single universal organism, in which God and humanity, humanity and the cosmos, truth, goodness and beauty are united.
The idea of total unity is most fully substantiated in ontology, the doctrine of being. The source of the existence of nature and society, material and spiritual, is recognized as the Absolute, or the universal of the original world. The primacy of being, according to the thinker, belongs not to parts, but to the absolutely whole, i.e. god. The ideal prototype of the diversity and completeness of the universe is Sophia. It contains the idea, tasks and method of carrying out any act. The world of concrete things is the result of the materialization of the ideal.
Solovyov deprives philosophy of independence and the right to true knowledge, while the object of true knowledge is God, comprehended with the help of mystical vision. Philosophical and natural science knowledge is ultimately determined, in his opinion, by religious perception. The essence of truth is comprehended in "whole knowledge", which is based on a comprehensive synthesis of religion, philosophy and science.
The epistemological aspect of unity found expression in the concept of "whole knowledge". Solovyov believed that the beginnings of the universe can be described in philosophy and science. Along with logical thought, he recognizes intuition and the moral element of knowledge. "Integral knowledge" appears as an intuitive figurative-symbolic comprehension of the world, based on the moral efforts of the individual.
Berdyaev Nikolai Alexandrovich(1874–1948). “The soul is a creative process, an activity. The human spirit must always transcend itself, rise to that which is higher than man.
Berdyaev participated in the socialist movement in his youth. Later, he departed from it and took up the development of a philosophical-existential worldview. In 1922 he was expelled from Soviet Russia. From 1926 to 1939 he was the editor-in-chief of the religious and philosophical journal Put'. Died at work desk.
In his numerous works, Berdyaev defended the primacy of the individual over society. Personality is characterized in the horizons of freedom, spirituality, creativity. Berdyaev repeatedly gave his interpretation of the fate of Russia. He believed that Russia had a messianic role.
Wittgenstein Ludwig(1889–1951). "Philosophical problems have the form: 'I am at a dead end'." “What is your goal in philosophy? - show the fly the way out of the flytrap ... ".
Wittgenstein is one of the key figures in the entire philosophy of the 20th century. Wittgenstein's behavior is unusual, and some of his actions seem extravagant: he participates in the First World War, is captured by the Italians, wears a philosophical masterpiece written by him in his satchel, renounces a huge inheritance, builds a house for his sister according to his project, is going to go to a monastery, become a conductor symphony orchestra, visits the USSR in order to study the northern peoples, teaches arithmetic to kids at school.
In philosophy, Wittgenstein made his name famous for his analysis of language.
Gadamer Hans Georg(born 1900). "Whoever wants to think must ask." “Waiting for an answer already presupposes that the questioner is touched by the tradition and hears its call.”
Gadamer is a student of Heidegger. He worked at the University of Leipzig, moved from the GDR to the FRG. In 1960 he published the book "Truth and Method", which brought him fame.
Gadamer is considered the head of the modern hermeneutic school.
Husserl Edmund(1859–1938). “Philosophy must always fulfill its function in European humanity - the archon (highest official. - VC.) of all mankind."
Worked at Freiburg University (Germany). After the Nazis came to power, Husserl, due to his Jewish origin, was deprived of the opportunity to take part in the official philosophical life of Europe. In seclusion, abandoned by all his philosopher friends except for two young assistants, he continued to work intensively. Already after Husserl's death, yesterday's student, 27-year-old Belgian van Breda, who accidentally visited his relatives, discovered to his great surprise manuscripts of 47,000 pages. Secretly, through the channels of diplomatic mail, Husserl's archive was taken to the Belgian city of Leuven. To this day, this archive serves as the documentary basis for the multi-volume Husserlian.
Husserl is the founder of phenomenology. He dreamed of making philosophy a rigorous science and thereby developing tools for overcoming the crises of mankind.
Derrida Jacques(born 1930). “... What is happening today in our world and our “modernity” ... All my efforts are efforts to deal with this immense issue.”
Derrida is the leader of modern French philosophy. It is popular all over the world. In philosophy, he took a worthy place thanks to the method of deconstruction developed by him. To understand something, one must distinguish; the present has both the past and the future.
Carnap Rudolph(1891–1970). "...explanations by means of facts are really explanations by means of laws in disguise."
Carnap is an Austrian philosopher, a member of the famous Vienna Circle. In 1935 he emigrated to the USA, where he had numerous students. One of the founders of logical positivism. He dreamed of creating such a logical system that would represent, if not all, then as many empirical facts as possible.
Quine Willard van Orman(born 1908). "To be is to be the value of a bound variable."
Quine is the elder of American analytic philosophers, an excellent logician, a student of the English philosopher Russell. Successfully popularizes his work in the United States. According to Quine, philosophy must be based on experimental facts, have a clear logical form. What and how exists, a person can understand only on the basis of the theory, its laws, which are formed in the form of equations with variables. Hence his famous definition, given by us as an epigraph.
Lenk Hans(born 1935). "Never before has a West-Western European man had to be as responsible as he is today."
Lenk is a typical Western philosopher of the late 20th century, and a philosopher of a new formation. Having become the Olympic rowing champion at the age of 25 (as part of the eight rowers), he then devoted himself entirely to philosophy. He traveled the whole world, wrote about a hundred monographs, made a significant contribution, perhaps more than anyone else, to the cause of uniting the efforts of philosophers from various continents and countries. He did much for the mutual enrichment of German and American philosophy. He is very friendly towards many Russian philosophers.
Lenk's philosophy is distinguished by its practical orientation, focus on the most topical issues of science, technology, sociology, a sharpened, conscientious attitude to life.
Popper Karl Raimund(1902–1994). "...Freedom is more important than equality."
Popper was born in Vienna, moved to New Zealand to escape Nazism, and became a famous philosopher in England. At the age of 17, he moved to a dilapidated student dormitory, worked for many years in a social service, helping needy children. He became a teacher and only at the age of 35 took up philosophy professionally. For a long time he considered himself a socialist, but critically evaluating socialism in Russia, he criticized Marx's theory
Popper is considered the founder of postpositivism. He showed how the growth of scientific knowledge occurs.
Russell Bertrand(1872–1970). "You must not follow the crowd in its evil deeds." The entry made in the bible given to Russell by his grandmother. Russell followed this commandment all his life.
Russell is an outstanding British philosopher, mathematician, politician, Nobel Prize winner (for literature). All his life he rebelled against all untruth, more than once he ended up in prison. Already being an old man, together with the youth, he opposed the manifestations of militarism.
Russell is the founder of analytic philosophy.
Jean-Paul Sartre(1905–1980). "Regardless of circumstances, time and place, a person is free to choose himself as a traitor or a hero, a coward or a winner."
Sartre is to France what Russell is to England, namely, the philosophical conscience of the nation. Sartre is not only a philosopher, but also a writer (in 1964 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, which he refused to accept), a politician. He was a member of the French resistance to fascism, actively supported the May 1968 revolt of the Parisian youth.
In philosophy, Sartre is a supporter of maximum immediacy in life. It is said that Sartre's serious philosophical activity began with an episode in a cafe, where he spent an evening with his wife, the writer Simone de Beauvoir, and his friend, the sociologist Aron. Aron talked about his trip to Germany, Husserl's philosophy. Pointing to a glass of cocktail, Aron said to Sartre: "If you are a phenomenologist, then you can judge this cocktail, and this is real philosophy." Sartre turned pale with excitement. Yes, he wanted to comprehend the philosophy of not cosmic, but earthly affairs. Sartre began to diligently study philosophy, visited Germany, wrote his first philosophical masterpieces.
In philosophy, Sartre is known as one of the founders of existentialism. He paid exceptional attention to the theme of freedom, which, by the way, is evidenced by the epigraph to this article.
Heidegger Martin(1889–1976). “Still, it is possible that man has so far acted too much and thought too little for centuries.”
Heidegger is one of the most original philosophers of the 20th century. He spent most of his life in Freiburg (Germany). They saw him as a philosopher who would be able to oppose the scientific and technical onslaught with a deep thought. And so it happened.
In 1933, Heidegger was elected by the academic council of the University of Freiburg to the post of rector. Heidegger joins the ranks of the Nazi Party on the condition that he will not perform any party functions. Heidegger, by his own calculations, took 10 months to completely disbelieve in Nazism. He did not break his ties with philosophers of Jewish origin, despite the incessant demands of the Nazis to disengage from them, he continued to openly use their works, and when the Ministry of Culture began to insist on the dismissal of one social-democratic professor for political reasons, he refused the rector's post. Nevertheless, the German democrats did not forgive Heidegger for his Nazi past.
Philosophy Heidegger understood as a radical questioning, a medicine against frivolity, which cannot be bought with money, but can only be achieved as a result of deep reflection. Heidegger is the founder of hermeneutics.
Habermas Jurgen(born 1929). "Modern is an unfinished project." Habermas is by far the most famous German philosopher. The fame of Habermas is explained not only by the content of many pages of philosophical works, but also by his journalistic activities, responses to the most important events in the country and the world. Habermas enjoys great respect in Germany, he is consulted by the most famous politicians, he has been repeatedly awarded prestigious prizes.
In philosophy, Habermas is best known for his theory of the communicative society. He believes that modernity, modernity always requires work to increase the openness of society, establish a productive rational dialogue, criticize various kinds of ideologies and bureaucracies that do not justify their purpose.
History of Russian Philosophy.
Modern Western Philosophy.
In the last decade, such areas as psychoanalysis, hermeneutics, anarchist philosophy, linguistics, phenomenology, philosophy of life, and existentialism have been developing most dynamically.
Phenomenology. Husserl(1859-1938). Purpose: to build a science of science. The study of the world should begin with the study of consciousness, because reality is available to people only through consciousness. And then the questions arise:
1) What is consciousness? How is it different from what is not consciousness? Phenomenology seeks to single out pre-objective, pure, pre-symbolic consciousness, and to determine its features. In his activity, both theoretical and practical, a person is naive, because he does not see the meanings that he himself introduces into the objects he perceives. A person believes that he cognizes an object as something independent of the consciousness of his own and other people, but in fact these are not objects, but objects into which a person brings a certain meaning. They must be cleared of the need for knowledge in meanings. naive everyday life, which is the source of all theories and concepts of science. We investigate the secondary formations of the reality of the world and draw the concept of science from them.
2) How are the secondary formations of the world formed? All kinds of reality with which a person deals are explained from acts of self-consciousness and ejaculation. Self-consciousness is explained from itself, reveals itself as a phenomenon.
Existentialism. Kierkegaard. For all schools: reality is the being of the human person. Being is the beginning and end of any knowledge. A person first exists, thinks, feels, lives, and only then determines himself in this world of an individual goal, creates himself, chooses his life. It seems to a person that the world is rational and there are general laws of the world, but in fact the world is absurd. It is alien and meaningless, like human life itself. A real person does not hide behind a mirage, and he himself is responsible for his actions and consequences. Human existence is a drama and our choice determines our essence. This does not mean that a person is absolutely free in his choice from society. And in communication with another person, he either submits to the will of impotence, or he himself submits to his will. There are many truths, therefore, in their understanding there is no truth, truth is subjectivity and it is possible.
Conclusion. The meaning lies in the realm of free risk. And own responsibility for their actions and their consequences. This is the meaning of being - the essence of existentialism.
Russian philosophy, as a phenomenon of original original thought, began to develop and take shape quite late, only in the 19th century. This does not mean that before the 19th century there were no philosophers in Russia. The first works of the first Russian thinkers appear already in ancient times (11th century) with the beginning of the formation of Russian statehood. But truly original Russian philosophy began to emerge from the end of the 30s of the 19th century, and almost immediately Russian social and philosophical thought was divided into 2 directions (Slavophilism, Westernism). When it comes to Slavophilism and Westernism, it is usually remembered that Slavophilism means the doctrine of the original development of Russia, about its features, which distinguish the historical path and national image from the Western path and image. Westernism is considered as a recognition of the inevitability of Russia to go through the same path of historical development that the Western European countries have gone through. Such an understanding to a certain extent reflects the mind and mood characteristic of this line of thought. Such interpretations are too broad and do not reflect the essence of their philosophical concepts. The most prominent representatives of the Slavophiles were: Khomyakov, Kireevsky, Anakhov, Samarin, etc. Slavophil philosophy is characterized by 3 features. The principle of integrity for all areas of knowledge and activity. In the field of knowledge, this means that the possibility of knowing the truth through individual human abilities is denied. Only when these abilities are combined with the obligatory participation of the will, it makes it possible to know the world as it is. Genuine knowledge of the essence of the world is not given to an individual, but only to the conciliar consciousness. Specific traits:
1) The principle of catholicity is one of the main principles of Slavophilism (it seems like special kind collectivism, in which the individual is free and does not dissolve in the collective, but rather acquires true spiritual independence for unity with other similar individuals on the basis of common love to god. 2) Contrast internal freedom with the dominance of external necessity. Slavophilism upholds the primacy (primacy) of freedom and they believe that the true freedom of man lies in his freedom from external necessity. A person should be guided in his behavior by a moral sense based on faith in the highest authority - God, and act according to his conscience, and not under the influence of external circumstances. 3) The religiosity of Russian philosophy. Only faith determines the movement of history, and way of life, and morality, and thinking. Moreover, only the Christian worldview and the church are able to lead humanity on the path to salvation. All the troubles and all the evil in human society come from the fact that humanity has departed from the true faith and has not built a true church. Slavophilism appears to be the true beginning of a truly local original Russian philosophy, which has made a significant contribution to the development of world philosophical thought.
Westernism: Herzen, Granovsky, Turgenev etc. They believed that the ideas of the Slavophiles were unrealistic , because Russia, starting from Peter I, is irreversibly tied to the West. We will resolve the dispute between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers in favor of the latter, since Russia in the 19th century along the Western path of development. Russia was involved in the hardest social element, during which we tried to oppose ourselves to the bourgeois West and at the same time destroyed the basis of the national spirit of Russia. We continue to experience the consequences of this today. In the middle of the 19th century, the dispute of worldviews practically did not concern political problems. It was affirmed within the theoretical framework.
Philosophy V.S. Solovyov(1853-1900). He tries to resolve the antinomy of faith and knowledge. The main ideas are ideas about the meaning of life. The epistemological components of philosophical total unity are the theory of integral knowledge. Which he contrasts both with the rationalism of the Westerners and the rationalism of the Slavophiles. Central to his theory of integral knowledge is his theory of over-rationalism. The integrity of knowledge is not the theoretical and practical reason of the German classics and not even their unity, it is something else. Integrity is a characteristic of the human soul, which most significantly distinguishes man as the highest of the perfect creations of nature from all others. This vector is love. Moreover, in the Russian mind, love is not the eros of the ancients and not the altruism of fireworks. Love in the Russian sense is spiritual in nature. Russian philosophy put forward and defended a different system of values. Russian spirituality contrasted archaic concepts like love, conscience. This was an absolute weakness. And at the same time, the greatest strength of thinkers who were not afraid of the discord of their contemporaries. Solovyov's philosophy adequately crowns the Russian philosophy of the 19th century.
Considering Russian philosophy of the 19th-20th centuries. one should not think that all of it was a confrontation between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers. Strong enough were the materialistic directions of philosophical thought, according to which a person was considered as the result of the centuries-old evolution of living matter and is subject in his existence to all those laws that operate in nature. The cause of bad behavior should be sought in the environment in which a person grew up and was brought up. Bad deeds were considered as a consequence of bad conditions of existence, and in order for a person to be better, their conditions must be improved. The views of Russian materialists were opposed by the views of Russian thinkers that man is not only a material being, but also a spiritual one. The main thing in a person is the soul, and if it is pure and immaculate, then no external circumstances will force a person to act badly. And if there is no God in the soul, then good conditions will not save him from evil deeds. Man has free will and is responsible for his actions. Western philosophy proceeds from the fact that the basis of knowledge is doubt, while in Russian the basis of knowledge is surprise. The difference between these concepts is the same as the difference between contemplation and the environment of the world. “It is not at all necessary to break the mechanism in order to understand how it works” (Pavel Florensky). The urgent task is not to change the world, but mainly to contemplate it. We must cherish and cherish nature, given to us for eternal use.