Types of knowledge and their characteristics. What are the types of knowledge Is built on the image and not on the concept
How is the nature of worldly knowledge defined in the text? What function in people's lives, according to the author, does everyday knowledge perform? Based on social science knowledge, explain the meaning of the concept of "cognition".
In our time, it is not difficult to fall into the error of identifying knowledge in general with only scientific knowledge (or even with what is commonly considered scientific) and discarding all other types of knowledge or considering them only to the extent that they can be likened to scientific knowledge. This is due to the modern peculiar social atmosphere, the cult of science inherent in modern society and existing despite the growing criticism of the costs of scientific and technological progress and even in parallel with it. The development of sciences has not only discovered many facts, properties, laws, established many truths - a specific type of thinking has been developed. But to confuse knowledge in general with its scientific form is a profound error. In everyday life, not all problems facing a person and society require an indispensable appeal to science: the book of life is open not only to the eyes of a scientist, it is open to everyone who is able to perceive things, feel and think.
If we proceed from the fact that the basis of all knowledge is experience in the broadest sense of the word, then the types of human knowledge are distinguished primarily because of what kind of experience they are based on.
It makes sense to distinguish between the "passive" knowledge of the reader of a work of art or a student recording a lecture, from the knowledge of the author, the knowledge of the creator - be it a scientist, artist or religious ascetic. (Although in the first case, the element of creativity is not excluded; they say that a brilliant writer also needs a brilliant reader.) "Author's" knowledge differs most clearly in type, primarily in the nature of personal inclination ... However, harmony is also characteristic of outstanding creative personalities. cognitive abilities.
Worldly knowledge and knowledge is based primarily on observation and ingenuity, it is empirical in nature and is better consistent with generally accepted life experience than with abstract scientific constructions.
The importance of worldly knowledge as a precursor of other forms of knowledge should not be underestimated: common sense is often more subtle and insightful than the mind of another scientist... Based on common sense and everyday consciousness, such knowledge is an important orienting basis for people's daily behavior, their relationships with each other and with nature. Here is his common point with science. This form of knowledge develops and enriches itself with the progress of scientific and artistic knowledge; it is closely connected with the "language" of human
culture as a whole, which is formed on the basis of serious theoretical work in the process of world-historical human development. As a rule, everyday knowledge comes down to stating facts and describing them.
(A. G. Spirkin)
Explanation.
1) delusion:
Identification of knowledge in general exclusively with scientific knowledge;
2) reasons:
The cult of science inherent in modern society;
The presence of a specific type of thinking.
Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.
Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
2) two other differences, for example:
Other differences can be named
Explanation.
The following explanations can be given:
1) not all problems can be studied, understood within the framework of one type (form) of knowledge;
2) empirical and theoretical knowledge are interrelated and can hardly be isolated from each other (empirical information is recorded in concepts, judgments, conclusions, etc.);
3) the combination of different types (forms) of knowledge gives the most complete picture of the world.
Other explanations can be given
Explanation.
Three questions must be answered:
1) the answer to the first question:
empirical character;
2) answer to the second question:
The orienting basis of everyday behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature;
3) answer to the third question:
Cognition is a type of activity, the content of which is the reflection of objective reality by the sense organs and the mind of a person, and the result is the acquisition of knowledge.
Answers to questions can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.
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Lesson plan. The term "knowledge" Types of knowledge. Scientific knowledge Social knowledge. http://banner.konfuzius.ru
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The term "knowledge" is used in different senses: As abilities, abilities, skills that are based on awareness As cognitively significant information As a special cognitive unit that expresses the form of a person's attitude to reality and exists along with and in interconnection with its opposite - a practical attitude.
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Types of knowledge. worldly Has an empirical character. Based on common sense and ordinary consciousness. It is the basis of everyday behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. The scientific understanding of reality in its past, present and future, a reliable generalization of facts, boils down to a statement of facts and their description. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms (formulas, graphs, diagrams, etc.)
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Types of knowledge. Practical Mastering of things, transformation of the world Artistic Holistic display of the world and the person in it. It is built on the image, and not on the concept Rational Reflection of reality in logical concepts and categories. Associated with rational thinking
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Types of knowledge. Irrational Not related to rational thinking and even contradicts it. The subject is emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, as well as some phenomena, for example, anomalous, characterized by paradox and not subject to the laws of logic and science Personal Depending on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity
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Scientific knowledge Everyone knows and everything is understood only by fools and charlatans. Anton Chekhov.
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Scientific knowledge is a special kind of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, man and society. cor.edu.27.ru
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Let's check the homework: What are the features of scientific knowledge? irgri.ucoz.ru
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features of scientific knowledge are as follows: - objectivity of the obtained knowledge; - development of the conceptual apparatus (categoriality); - rationality associated with consistency, evidence and consistency; - verifiability; - high level of generalization of knowledge; - universality; - the use of special ways and methods of cognitive activity.
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Scientific knowledge is universal in the sense that it can make any phenomenon an object of study, can study everything in the human world. However, everything that science makes its subject, it explores from the side of laws and causes. Scientific knowledge has its own levels, forms and methods.
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Let's check our homework. Name the main levels and forms of scientific knowledge. irgri.ucoz.ru
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Scientific knowledge - levels: Empirical Identification of objective facts, as a rule, from their obvious connections. Theoretical Identification of fundamental patterns, detection behind visible manifestations of hidden, internal connections and relationships.
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Forms of scientific knowledge Empirical level: Scientific fact (event, physical process) Empirical law Theoretical level: Problem Hypothesis Theory
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Methods of scientific knowledge Empirical methods: observation, experiment, measurement, description, comparison. Theoretical methods: Analogy (similarity in qualities), Modeling (reproduction of similar characteristics on another “model” object), Idealization - mental objects that do not really exist in experience and reality (“straight line”, “point”, “ideal gas”, "absolutely rigid body") Abstraction (mental abstraction from a number of properties of an object and the selection of any property)
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We draw conclusions: Empirical knowledge is fragmentary (gives knowledge only about certain aspects of the object under study) Theoretical knowledge is systemic, reveals the essence of the object under study. Only the unity of all methods of scientific knowledge ensures their truth.
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Social cognition. People exist for each other. Marcus Aurelius. It is impossible to live in society and be free from society. Lenin.
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Social knowledge - analysis of social processes and identification of regular, recurring phenomena in them Humanitarian knowledge - analysis of goals, motives, orientation of a person and understanding of his thoughts, motives, intentions Social and humanitarian knowledge are interpenetrating. There is no society without man. But a person cannot exist without society.
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Features of social cognition 1. Subject and object of cognition coincide. 2. The resulting social knowledge is always associated with the interests of individuals-subjects of knowledge. 3. Social knowledge is always loaded with evaluation, this is valuable knowledge.
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Features of social cognition 4. The complexity of the object of cognition - a society that has a variety of different structures and is in constant development. 5. Since social life changes very quickly, in the process of social cognition one can speak of the establishment of only relative truths. 6. The possibility of using such a method of scientific knowledge as an experiment is limited.
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Peculiarities of Humanitarian Knowledge Comprehension - (p. 62 MM Bakhtin) Referring to the texts of letters and public speeches, diaries and policy statements, works of art and critical reviews, etc., in order to understand their meaning. The impossibility of reducing knowledge to unambiguous, all recognized definitions. Humanitarian knowledge is designed to influence a person, spiritualize, transform his moral, ideological, worldview guidelines, and contribute to the development of his human qualities.
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Social fact An objective scientific event that took place at a certain time, under certain conditions. Does not depend on the researcher. It may not be fixed. Knowledge about an event, which is described taking into account the specifics of the social situation in which it took place. Recorded in books, documents, or otherwise.
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Types of social facts. Actions, deeds of people, individuals or large social groups Products of human activity (material and spiritual) Verbal (verbal) actions: opinions, judgments, assessments
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Why interpret social fact? For a fact to become scientific, it must be interpreted (lat. interpretatio - interpretation, clarification). First of all, the fact is brought under some scientific concept. Further, all the essential facts are studied, from. in which the event is formed, as well as the situation (environment) in which it occurred, various connections of the studied fact with other facts are traced.
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We draw conclusions: Thus, the interpretation of a social fact is a complex multi-stage procedure for its interpretation, generalization, explanation. Only an interpreted fact is a truly scientific fact.
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Let's repeat what we've learned so far. 1. The statement “The product has a value” is an example of A) presentation B) concept C) judgment D) inference
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2. The criterion (s) of truth is (are): A) compliance with the prevailing teaching in society B) practice C) the opinion of the leadership D) all of the above
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3. Both sensory and rational cognition: A) forms ideas and knowledge about the subject B) begins with sensation C) gives a visual image of the subject C) uses logical reasoning.
1. Knowledge of the world. Types of human knowledge.
Knowledge is the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world.
Types of knowledge:
Worldly - is built on common sense (It is empirical in nature. It is based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. It boils down to stating facts and describing them)
Practical - based on actions, mastering things, transforming the world
Artistic - is built on the image (A holistic display of the world and the person in it. It is built on the image, and not on the concept)
Scientific - is built on concepts (Understanding reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. - Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often acquire extremely abstract shapes)
Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking
Irrational - a reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, abnormal and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.
Personal (implicit) - depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity
Forms of knowledge:
1 Scientific - objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge
2 Unscientific - disparate, non-systematic knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws
3 Pre-scientific - prototype, prerequisites for scientific knowledge
4 Parascientific - inconsistent with existing scientific knowledge
5 Pseudo-scientific - deliberately using speculation and prejudice
6 Anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality
Cognition is the process of obtaining knowledge. In the process of cognition, there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In a narrow sense, the subject of cognition usually means a cognizing person endowed with will and consciousness, in a broad sense - the whole society. The object of cognition, respectively, is either a cognizable object, or, in a broad sense, the entire surrounding world within the boundaries in which individuals and society as a whole interact with it.
Exists two stages of cognitive activity.
On the first one, which is called sensual (sensitive) cognition (from German sensitw - perceived by the senses), a person receives information about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with the help of the senses.
The forms of sensory cognition are:
a) sensation, which is a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects of the surrounding world that directly affect the senses;
b) perception, during which a holistic image is formed in the subject of cognition, reflecting objects and their properties that directly affect the senses;
c) representation - such a form of cognition in which the sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is stored in the mind, which allows you to reproduce it mentally even if it is absent and does not affect the senses.
The second stage of cognitive activity is rational knowledge(from lat. ratio - mind). At this stage, relying on the data obtained as a result of the direct interaction of a person with the surrounding worldsm, with the help of thinking, they are streamlined and an attempt is made to comprehend the essence of cognizable objects and phenomena.
The forms of rational cognition are:
A) The concept is a form (kind) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of cognizable objects or phenomena.
b) Judgment is a form of thought in which a connection is established between separate concepts and with the help of this connection something is affirmed or denied.
c) Inference is called obtaining new judgments on the basis of existing ones by using the laws of logical thinking.
Rational cognition is closely connected with the reflected reality, that is, with sensory cognition, which serves as the basis for it. However, unlike sensory cognition, which exists in the form of images, the results of rational cognition are fixed in the form of signs or in language. Thus, human thinking, based on sensory experience, by comparison, assimilation, generalization, abstraction, transforms the sensory image, and fixes the results of the transformation in a sign form.
The essence of the process of cognition is to obtain the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the surrounding world. Different schools of philosophy gave different answers to the question of the possibility of knowing the world and obtaining true knowledge. Agnostics believed that it was impossible to obtain reliable knowledge, empiricists - that this can be done only with the help of sensations, and rationalists argued that only reason is the criterion of truth.
In the history of philosophy, there have been various definitions of the concept of "truth". The most frequently used is the following: truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. A characteristic feature of truth is the presence of an objective and subjective side in it. The objective side shows us the truth in that part of it, the content of which does not depend on us, since it exists in objective reality. The subjective side points to the fact that in its form the truth is always subjective, since when it is received in the process of cognition, the interaction of the object and the subject of cognition takes place, in which the consciousness of the latter takes a direct part.
It is customary to single out absolute truth and relative truth. Absolute truth is called complete, unchanging, once and for all established knowledge about any subject or phenomenon. However, in reality, this is practically unattainable. In most cases, we are dealing with relative truth (or truths), which is incomplete, limited knowledge, true only under certain conditions, which a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of his development.
The driving force of the process of cognition, as well as the criterion of truth, is practice. Moreover, this or that type of cognition has as a criterion of truth the form of practice corresponding to it: everyday practice, observation, experiment, etc. opportunities to rely on practice (for example, identifying logical contradictions in mathematical reasoning).
2. Crime, its types.
Criminal legal relations are relations between a criminal and the state regarding a crime regulated by the norms of criminal law.
The branch of Russian law that regulates relations that arise in connection with the commission of a crime is criminal law.
Criminal law is a set of legal norms established by the highest bodies of state power that determine the criminality and punishability of an act, the grounds for criminal liability, the goals and system of punishments, the general principles and conditions for their appointment, as well as the conditions for exemption from criminal liability and punishment.
No other branch of law regulates criminal law relations.
Sources of criminal law .
The only source of Russian criminal law is the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation (CC). The general principles and foundations of criminal law are established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
New laws providing for criminal liability should be included in the Criminal Code.
The rules of criminal proceedings are collected in the Code of Criminal Procedure (CPC RF).
What is a crime ?
A crime is a guilty socially dangerous act prohibited by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation under the threat of punishment.
Classification of crimes .
According to the object of the crime :
1) crimes against a person;
2) crimes in the sphere of economy;
3) crimes against public safety and public order;
4) crimes against state power;
5) crimes against military service;
6) crimes against the peace and security of mankind.
By the nature and degree of public danger :
1) crimes of minor gravity (up to 2 years in prison);
2) crimes of medium gravity: reckless acts (more than 2 years in prison), intentional acts (up to 5 years in prison);
3) grave crimes (up to 10 years in prison);
4) especially serious crimes (over 10 years of imprisonment or more severe punishment).
Guilt is the mental attitude of a person to a crime committed by him, expressed in the form of intent or negligence. A prerequisite for guilt is the sanity of a person and the achievement of the age of criminal responsibility established by law.
Depending on the form of guilt, crimes are divided into intentional and committed through negligence.
Forms of guilt:
1) intentional with direct intent;
2) intentional with indirect intent;
3) careless due to frivolity;
4) careless due to negligence.
3. Criminal liability.
What is criminal liability ?
Criminal liability is a kind of legal liability as a duty of a person to answer (to suffer hardships provided for by law) for a crime committed.
This is the most stringent type of legal liability.
Signs of criminal liability:
1) the existence of a list of crimes for which criminal liability is possible;
2) classifying the act as a crime only on the basis of the law;
3) consideration of the criminal case only by the court;
4) special procedural order;
5) the possibility of applying preventive measures (a written undertaking not to leave, arrest, detention)
6) only an individual can be subjected (is of a personal nature);
7) variety and special severity of criminal punishment, extremely unfavorable consequences for the convict (imprisonment, life imprisonment, death penalty);
8) the presence of a special condition after serving a sentence that limits the legal status of a person - a criminal record.
Grounds for applying criminal liability :
1) Commitment by a person of a socially dangerous act containing all the elements of a crime ( factual basis);
2) the existence of criminal law norms that determine the content of the committed act and establish punishment for it ( legal basis).
Criminal liability arises from the moment a crime is committed, is implemented - from the moment a person is brought to justice, terminates - with an act of amnesty, pardon, with the removal or cancellation of a criminal record.
Types of criminal penalties.
Criminal punishment is a measure of state coercion. Appointed by a court verdict and provided for by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.
1) A fine is a monetary penalty.
2) Deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities.
3) Compulsory work - the performance by a convict in his free time of work of free socially useful work.
4) Correctional labor - are served at the place of work of the convict.
5) Confiscation of property - compulsory gratuitous seizure of all or part of the property that is the property of the convict into the ownership of the state.
6) Restriction of freedom - the detention of a convicted person in a special institution without isolation from society in the conditions of supervision over him.
7) Arrest - keeping the convict in conditions of strict isolation from society.
8) Deprivation of liberty for a certain period.
9) Life imprisonment.
10) The death penalty. In the Russian Federation, a moratorium has been imposed on the death penalty.
4. Criminal process.
What is a criminal process?
Criminal process (criminal proceedings) - activities for the investigation and resolution of criminal cases.
Participants (subjects) of the criminal process :
1) Members of the prosecution.
The court is either single-handed, or (for grave and especially grave crimes) composed of three judges or with the participation of jurors.
The body of inquiry, the interrogator conduct an inquiry (urgent investigative actions) and an investigation in simple cases.
The investigator conducts a preliminary, i.e. prejudicial investigation.
The prosecutor oversees the investigation and inquiry and supports the prosecution at trial.
The victim speaks on behalf of the prosecution, i.e. person harmed by the crime.
2) Defense members.
Suspect, i.e. a person suspected of a crime.
The rights of the suspect: filing a petition, refusing to testify, contacting a defense lawyer.
The accused is the person who has been charged.
Rights of the accused : meeting alone with the defense counsel in case of arrest, familiarization with the case after the completion of the investigation, obtaining an indictment.
The accused after the transfer of the case to the court is called the defendant and has equal rights with the accuser.
Defender - a person who protects the rights and legitimate interests of the suspect, accused or defendant.
3) Facilitators of the process: witnesses, experts, specialists, translators, witnesses.
Principles of criminal procedure :
1) the principle of legality (Article 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 7 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
2) the principle of administration of justice only by the court (Articles 47, 118 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 8 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
3) the principle of respect for the honor and dignity of the individual (Article 21 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 9 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
4) inviolability of the person (Article 22 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 10 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
5) protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen in criminal proceedings (Articles 2, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 11 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
6) inviolability of the home (Article 25 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 12 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
7) secrecy of correspondence, telephone and other conversations, sentry, telegraph and other messages (Article 23 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 13 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
8) presumption of innocence (Article 49 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 14 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
9) competitiveness of the parties (Article 23 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 15 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
Competitiveness and equality of the parties :
1. the functions of accusation, defense and resolution of a criminal case are separated from each other; they cannot be assigned to the same body or the same official;
2. examination of evidence is carried out by the parties of the prosecution (public prosecutor, victim, civil plaintiff and their representatives) and defense (defender, civil defendant and his representative);
3. The parties to the prosecution and defense have equal rights before the court to file challenges and motions, present evidence, participate in their study, speak in the parties' debates, and submit written statements to the court on the issues specified in paragraphs 1-6 of part 1 of Art. 299 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, for consideration of other issues arising in the course of the trial;
4. the court is not a body of criminal prosecution, does not act on the side of the prosecution or the side of the defense;
5. The court creates the necessary conditions for the parties to fulfill their procedural obligations and exercise the rights granted to them, and also resolves the criminal case.
10) providing the suspect and the accused with the right to defense (Article 48 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 16 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
11) freedom of assessment of evidence (Article 120 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 17 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
12) the language of criminal proceedings (Article 26 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 18 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);
13) the right to appeal against procedural actions and decisions (Articles 45, 46 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 19 of the Code of Criminal Procedure).
Evidence in criminal proceedings :
1) testimony of the accused, victim, witness, expert;
2 things;
3) protocols of investigative and judicial actions;
4) audio and video recordings.
One confession of the accused is not enough. It is evaluated only in conjunction with other evidence and circumstances of the case.
Stages of the criminal process .
Pre-trial proceedings .
1) Initiation of a criminal case: reason (statement of a crime, confession); grounds (availability of sufficient data pointing to the crime); registration (decision on the initiation of a criminal case).
2) Preliminary investigation (inquiry, investigation):
* investigative actions are carried out by order of the investigator (interrogation, confrontation, identification, seizure of documents) or on the basis of a court decision (custody, house arrest, search, establishment of control and recording of telephone and other conversations);
* prosecution of a person(decree on involvement as an accused, presentation of pre-trial charges, familiarization of the accused with the case);
* closing indictment(compiled by the investigator and sent to the prosecutor's office);
* verification of investigative materials by the prosecutor.
Court proceedings .
1) Preparation for the court session (preliminary hearing).
The judge must decide whether to order a preliminary hearing, remand, stay or dismiss the case, or try it with a jury or set a trial.
2) Trial:
* preparatory stage (the judge checks the turnout, resolves petitions);
* judicial investigation (statement by the prosecutor of the indictment, interrogation of the defendant, interrogation of witnesses);
* debate of the parties, remarks of the parties;
* the last word of the defendant;
* pronouncement of judgment.
3) Proceedings in the court of second instance take place in the order of appeal and cassation appeals judicial decisions that have not entered into force.
4) Execution of the sentence.
Cognition is the process of comprehension by a person of new, previously unknown knowledge.
Structure learning process:
- The subject of cognition is an actively acting individual, social group or society as a whole, endowed with consciousness and goal setting.
- The object of knowledge is what the cognitive activity of the subject is aimed at. It can be animate (the person himself, animal) and inanimate (phenomena of nature); material (really existing object) or ideal (hypothesis, theory).
- The result of cognition - knowledge - is a product of the relation of thought to reality, existing in a logically linguistic form, in the form of concepts, judgments, symbols, signs.
Characteristics of the main types of knowledge
The question of the relationship between the sensual and the rational caused the emergence of two philosophical trends.
Empiricism- the only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.
Rationalism- our knowledge can be obtained only with the help of the mind, without relying on feelings.
But it is impossible to oppose the sensual and the rational in cognition, since the two stages of cognition appear as a single process. The difference between them is not temporary, but qualitative: the first stage is the lowest, the second is the highest. Knowledge is the unity of sensual and rational knowledge of reality.
Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness.
Types of knowledge:
Delusion- knowledge that does not correspond to a real object, but is accepted as truth. A lie is a deliberate distortion of the image of an object.
Zhiteiskoe- based on common sense, formed as a result of people's daily lives, reduced to stating facts and describing them.
Practical- the basis is the activity of people to fulfill their needs.
artistic- is built on the image, characterized by emotionality, subjectivity.
Scientific- characterized by the desire for objectivity, consistency, consistency, exists in the form of concepts and categories, general principles, laws, theories.
Rational- reflects reality in terms, is based on rational thinking.
Irrational- reflects reality in emotions, often based on intuition, does not obey the laws of logic.
Forms of knowledge
| Scientific- objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge | |
| empirical level methods: – observation; – experiment; - description. |
theoretical level methods: – induction (from particular to general); - deduction (from the general to the particular); - analysis (decomposition of the whole into parts) - synthesis (combining individual knowledge into a single whole) |
| Unscientific- disparate, unsystematized knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws | |
| pre-scientific - prerequisites for scientific knowledge parascientific - incompatible with existing scientific knowledge pseudoscientific - deliberately using speculation and prejudice anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality |
|
Features of social cognition:
- the subject and object of cognition coincide (society studies itself, the sociologist sees the process from the inside, since he himself is a participant in social relations. Therefore, a personal assessment of social phenomena plays an important role);
- the possibilities of the researcher are limited (it is not always possible to conduct an experiment);
- the complexity and variability of the object of study gives rise to a pluralism of points of view on society.
When studying society, one should apply concrete historical approach:
- to establish the relationship between the past and the future;
- identifying common patterns, it is necessary to remember the originality and uniqueness of the historical path of peoples, countries, regions;
- to study social phenomena in their diversity and interdependence;
- to consider the current activity as a result of the previous one.
Features of cognition by means of art:
- emotional coloring;
- carried out with the help of images.
Image- this is a reflection of reality, which has certain properties of a really existing object, refracted through the inner world of the creator (artist, director, writer).
Canon- a set of applied rules for creating an image. It is characterized by the peculiarities of the worldview of the era. (For example, in the period of antiquity, the beauty of the human body, proportionality is sung; in the Middle Ages, the body is perceived as something sinful, therefore it is depicted flat, covered with clothes).
Cognition is a process of interaction between subject and object. In the philosophy of modern times, the opposition of man and the world was replaced by the opposition of subject and object. The subject of cognition should be understood as a person endowed with consciousness, included in the system of sociocultural relations, whose activity is aimed at achieving the secrets of the object opposing him.
Characteristic features of knowledge:
Cognition is an essential relation to the world;
Creative process determined by historical aspects
The basis of a constructive attitude to the world, which is manifested in the ability to mentally transform the world.
Cognition is an active, exploratory complex process, consisting of the dialectical correlation of the sensual and the rational.
The highest form of knowledge is scientific. Scientific knowledge has two levels: empirical and theoretical. In empirical research, sensory data appear as material subject to comparative analysis and constitute the basis for conclusions that must be compared with existing knowledge and subjected to verification.
The methods of empirical knowledge include those that establish a direct connection between the researcher and the subject under study. The main ones are observation, experiment, analogy.
A theoretical study is a study aimed at revealing the essential determination of events and the result of which is the construction of a theory. Methods of theoretical research: modeling, axiomatics, formalization, mathematization.
Scientific knowledge of objects involves the study of the development of the object, that is, its history. And this is possible by 2 methods: the historical one reproduces all the details of the actual historical development and the logical one, which also reproduces history, but in its main essential features.
The logical method of reproducing an object in concepts is the method of ascending from the abstract to the concrete.
The theory of knowledge is a general theory that explains the very nature of human cognitive activity, in whatever area of science, art or everyday practice it may be carried out.
The theory of knowledge has historically developed in interaction with science. Some scientists investigate the objective reality, while others - the very reality of the study: this is a vital division of spiritual production; some acquire knowledge, while others obtain knowledge about knowledge, which is so important for science itself, for practice, and for the development of a holistic worldview.
Types of knowledge:
The type of knowledge is closely related to the characteristics of the cognizing subject. Some types of knowledge, by their nature, are associated only with a certain subject.
There are four types of knowledge: worldly, scientific, practical and artistic.
Life knowledge.
Worldly knowledge and knowledge is based primarily on observation and ingenuity, it is empirical in nature and is better consistent with generally accepted life experience than with abstract scientific constructions. The importance of worldly knowledge as a precursor of other forms of knowledge should not be underestimated: common sense is often more subtle and insightful than the mind of another scientist. This form of knowledge develops and enriches with the progress of scientific and artistic knowledge.
Scientific knowledge.
As a rule, everyday knowledge comes down to stating facts and describing them. Scientific knowledge also presupposes an explanation of facts, their comprehension throughout the system of concepts of a given science. Worldly knowledge states, and even then very superficially, how this or that event proceeds. Scientific knowledge answers questions not only how, but also why it runs that way.
Scientific knowledge does not tolerate unsubstantiated: this or that statement becomes scientific only when it is substantiated.
The essence of scientific knowledge lies in the understanding of reality in its present, past and future, in a reliable generalization of facts, in the fact that behind the random it finds the necessary, regular, behind the individual - the general, and on this basis it predicts various phenomena.
Practical knowledge.
It is also closely related to scientific knowledge. The difference between them lies mainly in the target setting. \ Practice consists in the possession of things, in domination over nature.
Artistic knowledge.
This type of cognition has a certain specificity, the essence of which is a holistic, rather than dissected display of the world and especially a person in the world. A work of art is built on an image, and not on a concept: here the thought is clothed in “living faces” and perceived in the form of visible events. Art is given to capture and express such phenomena that cannot be expressed and understood in any other way. Therefore, the better, more perfect a work of art, the more impossible it becomes to rationally retell it.
The main feature of artistic knowledge is self-evidence, self-evidence. From the point of view of the epistemology of intuitionism, the criterion of truth, directly based on self-convincing, points to the high position of artistic knowledge in the hierarchy of types of knowledge.
Another distinguishing feature of artistic knowledge is the requirement of originality, which is inevitably inherent in creativity. The originality of a work of art is due to the actual uniqueness, originality of its world.