Formation of a unified Russian state during the reign of Ivan III. Formation of a unified Russian state The role of the Boyar Duma

Having won the struggle for the main reign on Russian soil, subsequent rulers of the Moscow principality continued their efforts to unite the territories around Moscow. This process was significantly accelerated by the reign of Ivan the Third, who managed to annex the Yaroslavl principality in 1463.

At the same time, the Tver Principality, as well as the so-called Novgorod Republic, were able to provide active resistance to further unification. In order to maintain their independence, the boyars even entered into an alliance with Lithuania, eventually finding themselves under the rule of Casimir IV, the Lithuanian prince.

In 1472, Moscow conquered the Perm region, and two years later redeemed the Rostov principality. In 1485, Ivan the Third, together with a large army, approached Tver and took the city in just two days without losses. After these events, Ivan the Third forms a unified state, calling himself the sovereign of all Rus'.

In the middle of the fifteenth century, the power of the Golden Horde disintegrated into independent khanates and Ivan the Third stopped paying tribute to it, putting his state above this, which became the cause of military clashes between the two states.

In 1487, Kazan recognized its dependence on Moscow, and by the end of the fifteenth century, the new state also included lands in the northeast. At the same time, Ivan manages to conquer many Ukrainian and Belarusian territories from Poland and Lithuania.

The son of Ivan the Third, Vasily the Third, also began to pursue the so-called unification policy. So in 1503 he managed to annex Pskov, essentially destroying the feudal Pskov republic. And in 1514 he recaptures Smolensk from Lithuania. In 1517 - 1523, Vasily the Third took the Ryazan principality and Chernigov.

The further process of the formation of a single powerful state also involved important internal political and socio-economic changes, which was reflected in the formation of an estate-representative monarchy. At the same time, autocracy was supported by different classes, which in turn were interested in the formation of a single state with a strong central government.

For example, during the years of land unification under Ivan the Third, the authorities changed. The Boyar Duma becomes the supreme advisory body. In addition, institutions are being formed that are in charge of various areas of public life. A number of new orders also appear, as well as governors appearing.

Years of life: January 22, 1440 - October 27, 1505
Reign: 1462-1505

From the Rurik dynasty.

The son of the Moscow prince and Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of Prince Yaroslav Borovsky, granddaughter of the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo V.A. Serpukhovsky.
Also known as Ivan the Great, Ivan Saint.

Grand Duke of Moscow from 1462 to 1505.

Biography of Ivan the Great

He was born on the day of remembrance of the Apostle Timothy, so he received his baptismal name in his honor - Timothy. But thanks to the upcoming church holiday - the transfer of the relics of St. John Chrysostom, the prince received the name by which he is best known.

From a young age, the prince became an assistant to his blind father. He took an active part in the fight against Dmitry Shemyaka, went on hikes. In order to legitimize the new order of succession to the throne, Vasily II named the heir Grand Duke during his lifetime. All letters were written on behalf of the 2 great princes. In 1446, the prince, at the age of 7, became engaged to Maria, the daughter of Prince Boris Alexandrovich Tverskoy. This future marriage was supposed to become a symbol of the reconciliation of eternal rivals - Tver and Moscow.

Military campaigns play an important role in raising the heir to the throne. In 1452, the young prince was already sent by the nominal head of the army on a campaign against the Ustyug fortress of Kokshengu, which was successfully completed. Returning from the campaign with a victory, he married his bride, Maria Borisovna (June 4, 1452). Soon Dmitry Shemyaka was poisoned, and the bloody civil strife that had lasted for a quarter of a century began to subside.

In 1455, young Ivan Vasilyevich made a victorious campaign against the Tatars who had invaded Rus'. In August 1460, he became the head of the Russian army, which closed the path to Moscow to the advancing Tatars of Khan Akhmat.

Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilievich

By 1462, when the Dark One died, the 22-year-old heir was already a man of many experienced, ready to solve various government issues. He was distinguished by prudence, lust for power and the ability to steadily move towards his goal. Ivan Vasilyevich marked the beginning of his reign by issuing gold coins with the minted names of Ivan III and his son, the heir to the throne. Having received the right to a great reign according to the spiritual charter of his father, for the first time since the invasion of Batu, the Moscow prince did not go to the Horde to receive a label, and became the ruler of a territory of approximately 430 thousand square meters. km.
Throughout his reign, the main goal of the country's foreign policy was the unification of northeastern Rus' into a single Moscow state.

Thus, by diplomatic agreements, cunning maneuvers and force, he annexed the Yaroslavl (1463), Dimitrov (1472), Rostov (1474) principalities, the Novgorod land, the Tver principality (1485), the Belozersk principality (1486), the Vyatka (1489), part of the Ryazan, Chernigov, Seversk, Bryansk and Gomel lands.

The ruler of Moscow mercilessly fought against the princely-boyar opposition, establishing tax rates that were collected from the population in favor of the governors. The noble army and nobility began to play a greater role. In the interests of the noble landowners, a restriction was introduced on the transfer of peasants from one master to another. Peasants received the right to move only once a year - a week before the autumn St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after St. George's Day. Under him, artillery appeared as an integral part of the army.

Victories of Ivan III Vasilievich the Great

In 1467 - 1469 successfully carried out military operations against Kazan, eventually achieving its vassalage. In 1471, he made a campaign against Novgorod and, thanks to the attack on the city in several directions, carried out by professional warriors, during the Battle of Shelon on July 14, 1471, he won the last feudal war in Rus', including the Novgorod lands into the Russian state.

After the wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1487 - 1494; 1500 - 1503), many Western Russian cities and lands went to Rus'. According to the Truce of Annunciation in 1503, the Russian state included: Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, Mtsensk, Dorogobuzh.

Successes in the expansion of the country also contributed to the growth of international relations with European countries. In particular, an alliance was concluded with the Crimean Khanate, with Khan Mengli-Girey, while the agreement directly named the enemies against whom the parties had to act together - Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In subsequent years, the Russian-Crimean alliance showed its effectiveness. During the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503. Crimea remained an ally of Russia.

In 1476, the ruler of Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Khan of the Great Horde, which was supposed to lead to a clash between two long-time opponents. On October 26, 1480, the “standing on the Ugra River” ended with the actual victory of the Russian state, gaining the desired independence from the Horde. For the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke in 1480, Ivan Vasilyevich received the nickname Saint among the people.

The unification of previously fragmented Russian lands into a single state urgently required the unity of the legal system. In September 1497, the Code of Law was put into effect - a unified legislative code, which reflected the norms of such documents as: Russian Truth, Charter Charters (Dvinskaya and Belozerskaya), Pskov Judicial Charter, a number of decrees and orders.

The reign of Ivan Vasilyevich was also characterized by large-scale construction, the erection of temples, the development of architecture, and the flourishing of chronicles. Thus, the Assumption Cathedral (1479), the Faceted Chamber (1491), and the Annunciation Cathedral (1489) were erected, 25 churches were built, and intensive construction of the Moscow and Novgorod Kremlin was carried out. Fortresses were built in Ivangorod (1492), in Beloozero (1486), in Velikiye Luki (1493).

The appearance of a double-headed eagle as a state symbol of the Moscow State on the seal of one of the charters issued in 1497 Ivan III Vasilievich symbolized the equality of ranks of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Grand Duke of Moscow.

Was married twice:
1) from 1452 to Maria Borisovna, daughter of the Tver prince Boris Alexandrovich (died at the age of 30, according to rumors, was poisoned): son Ivan the Young
2) from 1472 on the Byzantine princess Sophia Fominichna Palaeologus, niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine XI

sons: Vasily, Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon, Andrey
daughters: Elena, Feodosia, Elena and Evdokia

Marriages of Ivan Vasilyevich

The marriage of the Moscow sovereign with the Greek princess was an important event in Russian history. He opened the way for connections between Muscovite Rus' and the West. Soon after this, he was the first to receive the nickname Terrible, because for the princes of the squad he was a monarch, demanding unquestioning obedience and strictly punishing disobedience. At the first order of Ivan the Terrible, the heads of unwanted princes and boyars were laid on the chopping block. After his marriage, he took the title "Sovereign of All Rus'".

Over time, Ivan Vasilyevich's second marriage became one of the sources of tension at court. Two groups of court nobility emerged, one of which supported the heir to the throne - Young (son from his first marriage), and the second - the new Grand Duchess Sophia Paleologue and Vasily (son from his second marriage). This family feud, during which hostile political parties collided, was also intertwined with the church issue - about measures against the Judaizers.

Death of Tsar Ivan III Vasilyevich

At first, Grozny, after the death of his son Molodoy (died of gout), crowned his son and his grandson, Dmitry, on February 4, 1498 in the Assumption Cathedral. But soon, thanks to skillful intrigue on the part of Sophia and Vasily, he took their side. On January 18, 1505, Elena Stefanovna, Dmitry’s mother, died in captivity, and in 1509, Dmitry himself died in prison.

In the summer of 1503, the Moscow ruler became seriously ill, he became blind in one eye; partial paralysis of one arm and one leg occurred. Leaving his business, he went on a trip to the monasteries.

On October 27, 1505, Ivan the Great died. Before his death, he named his son Vasily as his heir.
The Sovereign of All Rus' was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Historians agree that this reign was extremely successful; it was under him that the Russian state, by the beginning of the 16th century, occupied an honorable international position, distinguished by new ideas and cultural and political growth.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Formation of a unified state of Russia. Ivan III
Rubric (thematic category)	Story

1. At the end of August 1380 ᴦ. The Russian army set out from Kolomna and on September 6 approached the banks of the Don. After the meeting, the princes decided to cross the Don in order to cut off their path to retreat. On the night of September 7-8, the Don was crossed.

2. The Kulikovo field was located in a bend where the Nepryadva River flows into the Don. The field was bordered on three sides by rivers; Mamai could only attack from the Red Hill. Dmitry lined up the troops as follows: on the right wing there was a regiment of the right hand, in the center a foot army stood in close formation - a large regiment, on the left - a regiment of the left hand, in front of the large regiment there was a guard regiment, which was supposed to be the first to take the battle. In Zelenaya Dubrava, a selected ambush regiment was stationed under the command of the governor Bobrok of Volyn and the Serpukhov-Borovsk prince Vladimir Andreevich. The Horde's battle formation consisted of infantry in the center and cavalry on the flanks.

3. The battle began on September 8, 1380. at 11 o'clock in the morning. At first there was a duel between the heroes of Peresvet and Chelubey (Temir-Murza). They collided with such force that they both immediately fell dead. The Horde destroyed the guard regiment with a strong blow, but it completed its task - the archers were unable to cause confusion in the ranks of the Russians. The Horde cavalry dealt the main blow to a large regiment. Despite heavy losses, the soldiers of the large regiment survived. Prince Dmitry, dressed as a simple warrior, fought in the very center of the Russian system. On the right flank, all enemy attacks were repulsed, but the formation of the left-hand regiment was broken, and the Tatar cavalry rushed into the breakthrough. The enemies began to circle around the large regiment, trying to press it to the river. But at the decisive moment, an ambush regiment under the command of the Serpukhov-Borovsk prince Vladimir Andreevich and the experienced commander Bobrok dealt a powerful blow to the rear of the Horde. The Horde cavalry fled, crushing its infantry in the process. Mamai was one of the first to flee; he was later killed in Crimea. Throughout the day, the Russians pursued the fleeing enemy.

4. The main reasons for the victory of Russian troops in the Battle of Kulikovo were:

> the unification of Russian lands, the center of which was Moscow, which allowed Prince Dmitry Ivanovich to field an all-Russian army against Mamai;

> the liberating nature of the struggle of the Russian people against the Horde yoke;

> mass heroism, courage and tenacity of Russian soldiers;

> the military art of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich, manifested in the development of a strategic plan for the war with Mamai, and in the formulation of operational-tactical tasks, and in the organization of a mobile and disciplined army, in the choice of the battle site, in the formation of Russian troops before the battle.

5. The importance of the Battle of Kulikovo is difficult to overestimate:

> although it was not possible to overthrow the Horde yoke, this historical task was put on the agenda, and its implementation became a matter of time;

> the myth of the invincibility of the Golden Horde was dispelled;

> after the defeat of Mamai, the process of disintegration of the Horde accelerated;

> The Battle of Kulikovo strengthened the role of Moscow as the center of unification of all Russian lands into a single state;

> and most importantly, the Kulikovo victory marked the beginning of a spiritual revival and the growth of self-awareness of the Russian people.

At the same time, Horde dependence has not yet been eliminated. In 1382 ᴦ. Khan Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow and burned it, killing the inhabitants. Moscow had to resume paying tribute. In 1389ᴦ. Dmitry Donskoy dies. In his will, he transfers power to his eldest son Vasily I, without asking the permission of the Horde khan

12. Reign of Ivan III and Vasily III. Overthrow of Horde rule. Code of Law 1497 ᴦ. Formation of the Russian unified state

1. After the death of Vasily II (1462), his son Ivan III (1462-1505) becomes Grand Duke. At this time he was 22 years old. It was during his reign that the process of unification of Russian lands was completed. A cautious and prudent man, Ivan III consistently pursued his course towards the conquest of appanage principalities and the return of Russian lands seized by Lithuania. At the same time, he showed determination and iron will.

2. Under Ivan III, Novgorod was finally included in the Moscow Principality. Ivan III organized a well-planned campaign against Novgorod. The main battle took place on the Shelon River. And although the Novgorodians had a huge superiority in forces (approximately 40,000 versus 5,000), they suffered a crushing defeat. Ivan III brutally dealt with representatives of the pro-Lithuanian party: some were executed, others were sent to Moscow and Kaluga and imprisoned. In 1477 ᴦ. Ivan III launched a second campaign against Novgorod. In December the city was blocked on all sides. Negotiations lasted a whole month and ended with the capitulation of Novgorod. At the beginning of January 1478 ᴦ. The Novgorod veche was cancelled. Ivan III ordered the veche bell to be removed and sent to Moscow. The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist and became part of the Moscow Principality. Many boyars and merchants were taken from Novgorod to the central regions, and 2 thousand Moscow nobles arrived in Novgorod.

3. In 1485 ᴦ. Ivan III made a campaign against Tver. The rivalry between the two centers of North-Eastern Rus' ended in favor of Moscow. The son of Ivan III, Ivan Ivanovich, became the prince in Tver. The Moscow principality turned into an all-Russian principality. From 1485 ᴦ. The Moscow sovereign began to be called the “sovereign of all Russia”.

Under Vasily III (1505-1533), Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521) were annexed. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed. The territory of a single Russian state was formed - the largest in Europe. From the end of the 15th century. it began to be called Russia. The state emblem became a double-headed eagle. During this period, government bodies are being formalized. The head of the state was the Grand Duke, to whom the princely-boyar power was subordinate

Changes are taking place in the army. The feudal squads supplied by the boyars recede into the background. And the first comes out to the noble militias, noble cavalry, foot regiments with firearms (arquebuses) and artillery.

In 1476ᴦ. The Principality of Moscow stops paying tribute to the Golden Horde and Khan Akhman undertakes a new campaign against Rus'. The Horde Yoke is broken. This is how the 240-year Horde yoke ended.

In 1497 ᴦ. The Code of Laws was adopted - the first set of laws of a unified state. He determined the norms of punishment for certain crimes, regulated the secession of peasants from their feudal lord. The judge turned out to be in little demand. He appears to have been somewhat ahead of his time in the sense that the need for national legislation was not yet supported by the level of centralization achieved. Locally they relied on customary law and charters. Nevertheless, the appearance of the Code of Laws is symbolic and indicates the general direction of the political and legal development of the Russian state.

Feudal War passed with varying degrees of success, Vasily Kosoy was captured and blinded. In 1445 ᴦ. power in Moscow passed to Dmitry Shemyaka, who led the struggle of all appanage princes who opposed the strengthening of central power. The feudal war in this period was complicated by the intervention of the Golden Horde. In 1445 ᴦ. near Suzdal, the army of Vasily II was defeated by the Horde, and the Grand Duke himself was captured. For a large ransom he managed to free himself. At the same time, he promised the Horde to give a number of Russian cities to feed. All this caused a decline in the prince’s authority in all layers of Russian society. In 1446 ᴦ. he became a victim of a conspiracy of appanage princes, was captured and, on the orders of Dmitry Shemyaka, blinded. Since then he began to be called Vasily the Dark. In the autumn of 1446 ᴦ. Vasily II, in the presence of the princes of the church, noble boyars and boyar children, swore that in the future he would not strive for the Moscow throne. At the same time, Dmitry Shemyaka was losing the support of all layers of Russian society. This was primarily due to the fact that the long feudal war brought economic ruin to many regions and cities. The ruling class has an increasingly mature conviction of the extreme importance of centralizing the grand ducal power. In the fight against Shemyaka, Vasily II also received assistance from the church. The main battle took place in 1450 ᴦ. near Galich. And although the grand ducal troops suffered heavy losses, Shemyaka was unable to take Galich and was forced to flee to Novgorod, where he soon died.
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Thus the feudal war finally ended. Vasily II the Dark again became the Grand Duke.

4. The war devastated the country, directly affected the position of all layers of feudal society, slowed down the political unification of Russian lands, and the power of the Horde noticeably increased, which again began to interfere in the political affairs of Rus'. And at the same time, it showed the inevitability of the unification of Russian lands into one state. Moscow finally became the center of unification.

Grand Duke Ivan III (1462-1505) to The annexation of Novgorod took place more intensely. The Polish king and the Lithuanian prince Casimir united and opposed the capture of Novgorod by the Moscow prince. Ivan III, having learned about this, organized a campaign and defeated it in 1471. on the river
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Sheloni Novgorod militia. Novgorod recognized itself as a full-time Moscow, Ivan III gradually evicted the veche, the boyars, from the Novgorod land. at 1485ᴦ. was joined. Tver. The final Moscow state was formed. Under the son of Ivan III, Vasily III, the north-east and north-west were annexed. Rus. Ivan III enlarged territory of the Moscow principality in the 2nd. VA III managed to subordinate the church to his interests.

13.Culture of Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries

Literature. Works were written dedicated to the Mongol-Tatar invasion: “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “the Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”. The poems “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamay” were composed about the Battle of Kulikovo. The emergence of a new folk genre - historical songs - dates back to the 14th century. The merchant Afanasy Nikitin wrote "Walking beyond the three seas."

Painting. Theophanes the Greek. His painting is characterized by extraordinary expressiveness. Andrey Rublev. In 1399 he painted the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. magnificent painting "Trinity".

Architecture. The first stone church was the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipne in 1292. In 1366, the construction of stone fortifications of the Moscow Kremlin began. The main cathedral of the Kremlin, the Assumption Cathedral, is under construction. The Chamber of Facets is being built.

The beginning of the 15th century was the time of the first translations made by ancient Russian scribes from various languages. There was a gradual revival of Russian culture after the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Emotionality and interest in the human personality appear in church culture. The images of saints take on the features of real people. New ideas, architectural and pictorial forms come to Rus'.

14.Moscow kingdom in the 16th century. Reign of Ivan IV. The content of the reforms of the government of A. Adashev and their historical significance

January 16, 1547 ᴦ. Ivan 4 was solemnly crowned king. From now on, the main task of the Moscow sovereign was to protect Orthodoxy and care for the Orthodox - to establish true Truth on earth. According to the rite compiled by Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan Vasilyevich was crowned with the “cap of Monomakh” and began to be called the “Tsar and Grand Duke of All Russia”. The new title placed Ivan Vasilyevich above the rulers of neighboring states - the Swedish and Polish kings. However, the act of wedding itself reflected Moscow’s desire to change its place in the existing European system and reach a new level of international relations.

Summer 1547 ᴦ. An uprising broke out in the capital. The reason for it was a fire that was catastrophic in its consequences, during which about 25 thousand households burned down. On June 29, the rebels came to the village of Vorobyovo near Moscow, where the tsar was located. They demanded that all the Glinskys be handed over for execution, reproaching Ivan for “not bringing disgrace on them in that (fire).” Through communications and persuasion, the tsar and his entourage managed to reduce the intensity of the speech. But the terrible events of the summer once again reminded us of the extreme importance of change.

At the end of the 40s, a circle of like-minded people formed in the circle of Ivan 4, which went down in history under the name of the Chosen Rada. The elected council included both representatives of the highest aristocracy and ordinary people. Alexey Fedorovich Adashev became an influential member of the Elected Rada.

In 1549 ᴦ. was convened first Zemsky Sobor- an advisory body, a meeting of class representatives from boyars, nobles, clergy, merchants, townspeople and black-growing peasants. At the Council, measures were taken that expanded the rights of the nobles and limited the rights of large feudal lords - boyar-governors. The councils did not limit the power of the king, but contributed to the local political activities of the central government. Οʜᴎ did not become permanent, but subsequently met several times due to extreme importance. Based on the decisions of the Zemsky Sobor in the 50s of the 16th century. The following reforms were carried out:

> military;

> judicial - a new all-Russian Code of Law of 1550 was adopted;

> church;

> reforms of central and local governments.

At 1550 ᴦ. a new one was adopted Code of Law Ivan IV, who contributed to the strengthening of centralized power. The judicial functions of governors and volosts were limited; the court was locally supervised by royal clerks. Bribery was punishable by monetary fines. The death penalty was introduced for robbery. The norm of Code of Law 1497 ᴦ was confirmed. about St. George's Day: peasants could leave the feudal lord only once a year and the size of the “elderly” was even slightly increased. In 1581 ᴦ. For the first time, reserved years were introduced, prohibiting the transition of a peasant from one feudal lord to another in a certain year.

In the structure of reforms of the Elected Rada, self-government reform was one of the central ones. With the abolition of feeding, service people received not only the sovereign's land and cash salaries. Now the various categories of the ruling class were, as it were, equalized in the types of awards. There was a kind of redistribution of power in favor of central government, the role and importance of which increased.

At Chosen One A command system of management is being developed in the Rada. Orders were special bodies of state executive power. The most important of them were: Posolsky (in charge of foreign relations), Pushkarsky, Rozboyny (in charge of the local army, the defense of the country), Yamskoy (organized for the maintenance and management of the Yamskaya chase - the state postal service), Streletsky (in charge of the archers), Local (in charge of land ownership), Kazan (ruled the annexed territories (Kazan and Astrakhan khanates)), Siberian, Petition (all those who could not achieve “truth” in dealing with the governors came here). The orders were headed by Duma clerks; clerks and zemstvos, who stood at the head of the offices, were subordinate to them. This is how a professional management apparatus was formed - the main support of the central government.

A rifle army was created, armed with firearms.

The Service Code (1556 ᴦ.) established a uniform procedure for military service.

The elected Rada increased treasury revenues by carrying out tax and tax reforms.

In 1551 ᴦ. A council was convened to overcome numerous deviations from the deanery.

One of the important results of the reforms is the formation of an estate-representative monarchy. Zemsky Sobors reflected the social structure of Russian society, the place and role of each class and social group. The authorities listened to the voice of the service people, merchants and townspeople, who over time began to send their elected representatives to the cathedrals. Local governments have acquired great importance.

The reforms of the Elected Rada advanced the country along the path of centralization and expanded the capabilities of the authorities to solve national problems.

15. Reasons for the fall of the government of A. Adashev. Oprichnina and its consequences. The emergence of autocracy.

In 1559 ᴦ. There was a quarrel between the tsar and Adashev and Selvestor because of different points of view on the war for the Baltic states. In 1560 ᴦ. Adashev's opponents accused him of poisoning Grozny's wife, he was sent into exile, where he dies.

The main reason for the fall of Adashev's government was that it was unable to provide landowners with new land holdings and workers. The reforms did not undermine the most important socio-economic foundations of the power of the boyar aristocracy. Noble boyar families still occupied a prominent place at court. The internal contradictions of the various social groups that make up the “elected Rada” destroyed the government of compromise. Adashev's government led to oprichnina.

At the request of the people, Ivan the Terrible agreed not to leave the state and dictated his conditions: the right to unlimited autocracy of power and the establishment of an oprichnina. Oprichnina terror, executions, exiles began.

Ivan IV, introducing the oprichnina, pursued, first of all, the main goal - strengthening his autocratic power. It is also impossible not to admit that objectively the oprichnina contributed to the centralization of the country, since it dealt a blow to the remnants of feudal fragmentation. Moreover, the goal and means in this case turned out to be incommensurable. In 1570ᴦ. On the way to Novgorod, Ivan defeated Klin, Tver and Torzhok. The political power of the boyar aristocracy was undermined. The consequences of the oprichnina for Russia were tragic:

> the oprichnina contributed to the development of the despotic nature of the Russian autocracy; in fact, it turned both feudal lords and peasants into slaves;

> the country's economy was undermined, many lands were devastated, peasants fled from fiefdoms and estates. In 1581 ᴦ. Ivan the Terrible introduced “reserved years” - temporarily prohibited peasants from leaving the feudal lord even on St. George’s Day, i.e. serfdom was temporarily introduced in Russia;

> oprichnina policies led to a worsening of Russia’s position in the Livonian War

The oprichnina worsened the situation of the peasants and contributed to their enslavement.

In 1572, the oprichnina was abolished. Oprichnina led to the weakening of centralized power.

16.Western, southern, eastern directions of Ivan the Terrible’s foreign policy and its results.

Foreign policy.

By the middle of the 16th century. Russia has become a powerful power. The reforms made it possible to begin solving foreign policy problems. There were two leading directions of foreign policy:

> eastern - the fight with Turkey and the Crimean, Astrakhan and Nogai khanates, which were under the influence of the Ottoman Empire; the tsar wanted to unite the fragments of the disintegrated “Golden Horde” around Moscow.

> western - gaining access to the Baltic Sea, fighting the Livonian Order.

In 1545, the last stage of the military and political rivalry between the Muscovite kingdom and the Kazan Khanate began. Several campaigns against Kazan ended in failure. But in 1552, a huge Moscow army led by the tsar himself, supported by detachments of Mordovians and Chuvashs, besieged and took Kazan by storm. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was conquered relatively easily. Merchants from Central Asia came to Astrakhan, which had passed to Russia, to trade. The most important river artery, the Volga, became Russian along its entire length. The fall of Kazan opened the road along the Kama to the Urals and Siberia.

Having achieved success in the east, Ivan 4 turned to the west. Here the path to the Baltic was controlled by the Livonian Order. He was weakened by internal divisions, and Ivan 4 decided to take advantage of this. In 1558, the Russian army entered the borders of Livonia. The Livonian War began. At the beginning, the fighting was successful - the Russian army captured more than 20 cities. But the Livonians recognized the patronage of Lithuania and Sweden. At the same time, Russia, weakened by the oprichnina, could not withstand a long war with the two strongest states. The dispute over the lands of the collapsed Livonian Order was lost. In 1583 the war ended. Russia lost fortresses in the Baltic states. Arkhangelsk on the White Sea became the most important seaport for communication with Europe. Starting the Livonian War, Russia, with its developing trade and economy, needed sea routes to the West.

The unsuccessful war slowed down the socio-economic development of the country and contributed to the conservation of the most archaic forms of socio-political structure. The international position of the Russian state has deteriorated sharply.

17. Russia at the end of the 16th – beginning of the 17th centuries. Reign of Fyodor Ivanovich. The reign of Boris Godunov. The beginning of the Time of Troubles

March 18, 1584 ᴦ. Ivan the Terrible died. Tsarevich Fyodor, the heir of Ivan the Terrible, was not distinguished by willpower and “has little mind of his own.” Unity in the regency council, created by the will of Ivan, with Fyodor Ivanovich incapable of independent rule, did not last long. A stubborn struggle ensued. The princely-boyar nobility, led by the Shuiskys, enjoyed great influence; they laid claim to power, relying on the nobility of the family. They were opposed by noble figures of a special “court” and favorites of the late sovereign, who sought to maintain their positions under Fyodor Ivanovich. The Godunov-Romanov group was also influential, strong due to its family ties with the tsar. She gained the upper hand, gradually pushing all her rivals away from the throne.

With death in 1586 ᴦ. The head of the Romanov clan, boyar N.R. Yuryev, strengthened the position of the Tsar's brother-in-law B. Godunov. Soon he received the highest rank of stable servant and became the officially recognized ruler of the state.

Boris Godunov wanted to create schools and universities following the European model; he was the first of the Russian tsars to send noble children to study abroad. Under Godunov, much attention was paid to the construction and improvement of the capital. Having become the ruler of the state, Godunov made enormous efforts to strengthen his power and to overcome the crisis in Russia and strengthen its shaky positions. The laws adopted under Godunov improved the position of the nobility. Much attention is paid to strengthening the borders of the state. Considering the state of the country, Godunov sought to pursue a peaceful policy.

At the same time, the situation inside the country remained tense. Godunov tried to take measures to ease the discontent of the people. In 1598 ᴦ. he removed tax arrears, gave some privileges to servicemen and townspeople in performing state duties, declared an amnesty for prisoners, abolished the death penalty (for 5 years), and allowed the partial transfer of peasants from one owner to another.

But many noble boyars were dissatisfied with the election of Godunov, considering themselves left out, and spread rumors about his involvement in the death of Tsarevich Dmitry.

In 1598 ᴦ. The childless Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich died. An intense struggle for the throne began. Godunov clashed with his recent allies, the Romanovs. Godunov had advantages over his rivals. The government of the state was concentrated in his hands.

In 1598 ᴦ. The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris tsar.

In 1600-1601. the tsar dealt with the Romanovs and their supporters.

Boris's government course took shape under extremely unfavorable conditions. Social and political tensions grew. The economic stabilization of the 90s was interrupted by a bad harvest in 1601-1603. Secular and spiritual feudal lords were in a hurry to profit from the people's disaster.

The magnitude of the disaster prompted Tsar Boris to partially allow the peasant transition. In 1601 and 1602. decrees appeared according to which the farmer could leave the landowner of his own free will, fleeing hunger and oppression. Godunov tried to prevent the ruin of the bulk of the service people. However, these measures could not radically improve the situation. The crisis deepened.

18. Reasons for the Time of Troubles. False Dmitry I. Board of V.I. Shuisky. False Dmitry II. Swedish intervention. ʼʼSeven Boyarsʼʼ.

Events at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. received the name ʼʼTime of Troublesʼʼ. The causes of the unrest were the aggravation of social class, financial and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and his successors. The enormous costs and destruction of the Livonian Battle led to an economic crisis. 50% of the land was not cultivated, and prices increased 4 times. The economic crisis stimulated the strengthening of serfdom and caused social tension in the lower classes.

Political reasons: during the collection of lands, the Moscow principality turned into a vast state, which greatly advanced along the path of centralization in the 16th century. The social structure of society has changed significantly.

The political crisis was aggravated by the dynastic crisis, which was not at all completed with the election of Boris Godunov. The idea of ​​a legitimate, lawful monarch turned out to be integral to the concept of power.

In order to enslave the peasants, “Reserved Summers” were introduced - years when the transition from feudal lord to feudal lord was prohibited. In 1597 ᴦ. A decree was adopted on a five-year search for fugitive peasants.

Godunov suddenly died in May 1605.

In June 1605 ᴦ. False Dmitry solemnly entered Moscow. False Dmitry I is proclaimed king. The new tsar was not afraid to break many Orthodox traditions and openly demonstrated his commitment to Polish customs. This alarmed and later turned those around him against him. Very soon a conspiracy was drawn up, headed by V.I. Shuisky. But the plot failed. False Dmitry showed mercy and pardoned Shuisky, who was sentenced to death. however, he did not fulfill the promise given to the Poles (income from Novgorod land). The Poles plundered Russian lands in May 1606. Anti-Polish uprisings broke out in Moscow. False Dmitry I killed and proclaimed king Vasily Shuisky.

After the death of False Dmitry, the boyar Tsar Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610) ascended the throne. He gave an obligation, formalized in the form of a kissing cross (kissed the cross), to preserve the privileges of the boyars, not to take away their estates and not to judge the boyars without the participation of the Boyar Duma. The nobility now tried to resolve the deep internal and external contradictions that had created with the help of the boyar king. One of Shuisky's most important affairs was the appointment of a patriarch. Patriarch Ignatius the Greek was stripped of his rank for supporting False Dmitry I. The Patriarchal throne was occupied by the outstanding patriot 70-year-old Kazan Metropolitan Hermogenes. In order to suppress rumors about the salvation of Tsarevich Dmitry, his remains were transferred by order of Vasily Shuisky three days after the coronation from Uglich to Moscow. The prince was canonized. By the summer of 1606 ᴦ. Vasily Shuisky managed to gain a foothold in Moscow, but the outskirts of the country continued to seethe. The political conflict generated by the struggle for power and the crown grew into a social one. The people, having finally lost faith in improving their situation, again opposed the authorities. In 1606-1607. An uprising broke out under the leadership of Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov, which many historians consider the peak of the Peasant War of the early 17th century.

From Poland in the spring of 1608. spoke False Dmitry II and in 1609 ᴦ. I set up my camp in the Tushino area. The Swedes, whom Shuisky hired in exchange for the Korelsky volost, defeated the Tushentsev. In 1609 ᴦ. The Poles began open intervention in Russia and approached Moscow. In 1610 ᴦ. Shuisky was overthrown, power was seized by the boyars (ʼʼ Semi boyarsʼʼ), who surrendered Moscow to the Poles and invited the Polish to the throne Prince Vladislav.

Having removed V. Shuisky from power on July 17, 1610, the Moscow aristocracy created its own government - "Seven Boyars"- and invited the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne. The election of the heir to the Polish throne, Vladislav, by the Russian Tsar was stipulated by a number of conditions: Vladislav’s adoption of Orthodoxy and the crowning of the kingdom according to the Orthodox rite. Having converted to Orthodoxy, Vladislav lost the right to the Polish throne, which removed the threat of Russia's annexation to Poland. It was planned to introduce separation of powers. The king would be the head of state (limited monarchy with separation of powers).

19. The national liberation struggle of the Russian people during the Time of Troubles. The role of the Russian Orthodox Church in saving the state from foreign conquest. I and II Zemstvo militia. K. Minin and D. Pozharsky

Formation of a unified state of Russia. Ivan III - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Formation of a unified state of Russia. Ivan III" 2017, 2018.

Analyze the situation at the end of the 15th century.

Trace: what were the most important changes that took place in the Russian state during this period? What are their reasons?

Determine: how is the internal political activity of Ivan III connected with the characteristics of his character and upbringing? What impact did foreign policy problems have on the implementation of reforms?

Acquaintance with various historical works that evaluate this ruler.

1. Didactic.

During the lesson, ensure the assimilation of: the reasons for the unification of Russian lands around Moscow; the role of personality in history.

Reinforce the concepts of “centralized state”, knowledge of the reforms of Ivan III.

Develop skills in working with text based on the proposed algorithm.

Strengthen research skills (text analysis).

Strengthen general academic skills - making notes, diagrams.

2. Educational.

During the lesson, promote the formation of ideological ideas, the education of citizenship and love for the Motherland, for the history of your country.

Promote the formation of universal human values.

3. Development tasks.

Develop the ability to highlight the main thing in the material being studied; compare the points of view of different historians; summarize information obtained from historical sources; express your thoughts logically.

Students develop their research skills, as well as the ability to update what they have previously learned.

Students develop the creative ability to recreate a multidimensional “image of the era”, a vivid historical portrait.

Develop the student’s emotions by creating situations of surprise and joy in the lesson, using vivid examples and illustrations.

Equipment.

On the board: Map of Russia (1300–1533): folders with handouts (see Appendix);

in the center is a portrait of Ivan III; epigraph to the topic of the lesson.

Throughout the fifteenth century, Moscow, with fire and sword, asserts its primacy in the Russian world, until, finally, Ivan III takes out the veche stake of the de-tongued Novgorod Kremlin. The Church, caring for the state, illuminates the deeds of the great princes. Rus' and the Horde meet for the last time on the Ugra: after some deliberation, the Horde armies turn to their deserts, leaving Russia to its fate.

Igor Leonidovich Volgin, Doctor of Philology, writer, historian

Basic Concepts

unified state, autocratic power, tsar, Koyarskan Duma, code of law, Yuryev's day.

During the classes

Students are divided into groups (possibly in pairs). Each group is given a case with a selection of materials on the topic: a color map, chapters from the works of outstanding historians of the past, an algorithm for research activities, and illustrations. Children can find all the information and answers to the questions posed by the teacher in the texts proposed for analysis. If different historians give conflicting assessments of the activities of Ivan III, students should pay attention to the personality of the author, the era, and the circumstances of the writing of the work. Application .

I. Introductory part.

The 15th century is considered by many historians as the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age. This is the time of the fall of Byzantium (1452), the time of the beginning of great geographical discoveries, the time of discoveries and inventions, the time of the formation of centralized states in European countries, the time that went down in history as the Renaissance. A feature of the centralization of Russia was the need to combat external danger, the need to fight the Golden Horde, and subsequently with all the remnants of the Crimean, Kazan, Siberian, and Astrakhan khanates.

The formation of a centralized state in Russia followed the path of strengthening the power of the monarch, on the basis of oriental despotism, under the dominance of the feudal mode of production. The completion of the unification of Russian lands occurred during the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III.

What tasks did the new rulers of Rus' face? What actions did Ivan need to take to achieve his goals?

II. Working with texts. Drawing up a diagram around the portrait of Ivan.

1. Ivan III was characterized by his contemporaries as a successful, cautious, far-sighted politician. He was quite decisive, despite his slowness.

The marriage took place in 1472 in St. Peter's Cathedral; from the empire of the Grand Duke, Paleologus Ivan Fryazin became engaged to Sophia. The marriage had important political consequences - the rise of monarchical power in Moscow.

What character traits did Ivan III have? Why do historians characterize this ruler differently?

Why was marriage with Sophia important for Ivan? Was he of great importance for the Russian state?

2. Ivan III accepts a new title: “John, by the grace of God, sovereign of all Russia and Grand Duke of Vladimir, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugorsk, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and others.” The title appears - tsar ( short for “cesar”), as well as “autocratic” (translation of the title of the Byzantine emperor autocrat) - meant an independent sovereign, not subordinate to external authority. The Byzantine coat of arms, the double-headed eagle, is introduced.

What do the new titles of Ivan III indicate?

3. Assess internal transformations in the field of public administration.

Creation of orders.

Organization of the army.

Maintaining the Code of Laws of 1497

III. Working with the map. Trace the process of annexing Russian lands to the Moscow Principality.

Ivan III managed to complete the unification of North-Eastern Rus'.

1468 – Yaroslavl principality.

1472 – the beginning of the annexation of Perm the Great.

1474 – Acquisition of the remaining part of the Rostov Principality.

1478 - Novgorod lands went to Moscow.

1485 – The Principality of Tver passes to Moscow.

1489 – Vyatka lands.

1503 - Western Russian principalities pass to Ivan.

What does the fact that almost all lands (except Novgorod) easily annex to Moscow indicate?

IV. Working with maps and texts. Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Standing on the Ugra River.

What do contemporaries and historians see as the reasons for the Russian victory on the Ugra in 1480?

V. Generalization and consolidation of the studied material according to the scheme.

What is the attitude of contemporaries and historians of different eras towards Ivan III?

What is the attitude of students to the personality and actions of Ivan III?

What role did Ivan III play in the history of our state?

Homework.

Prepare a historical portrait of Ivan III - a man and a politician.

The Russian centralized state developed in the northeastern and northwestern lands of Kievan Rus, its southern and southwestern lands were included in Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. Its formation was accelerated by the need to fight external danger, especially the Golden Horde, and subsequently the Kazan, Crimean, Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazakh khanates, Lithuania and Poland.

In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after a clash between Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. At the head of the Horde troops was Ahmed Khan, who entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV. Ivan III managed to win over to his side

Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, whose troops attacked the possessions of Casimir IV, disrupting his performance against Moscow. After standing on the Ugra for several weeks, Ahmed Khan realized that it was hopeless to engage in battle; and when he learned that his capital Sarai was attacked by the Siberian Khanate, he withdrew his troops back. Rus' finally stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde several years before 1480. In 1502, the Crimean Khan MengpiTirey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.

The process of uniting northeastern and northwestern Rus' in one state was completed. The largest power in Europe was formed, which from the end of the 15th century. began to be called Russia. Fragmentation gradually gave way to centralization.

The princes in the annexed lands became boyars of the Moscow sovereign (“boyarization of princes”). These principalities were now called districts and were governed by governors from Moscow. The governors were also called “feeder boyars”, since for the management of the districts they received food - part of the tax, the amount of which was determined by the previous payment for service in the troops. A centralized control apparatus began to take shape. A boyar duma was organized. It consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichy (boyars and okolnichy are the two highest ranks in the state). In addition to the Moscow boyars, from the middle of the 15th century. Local princes from the annexed lands also sat in the Duma, recognizing the seniority of Moscow. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on the “affairs of the land.” The future order system grew out of two national departments: the Palace and the Treasury. The palace controlled the lands of the Grand Duke, the Treasury was in charge of finances, the state seal, and the archive.

Ivan Sh. The blind father Vasily II early made his son Ivan Sh co-ruler of the state. He received the throne when he was 22 years old. He gained a reputation as a prudent and successful, cautious and far-sighted politician. At the same time, it was noted that he more than once resorted to deceit and intrigue. Ivan III was the first to accept the title of "Sovereign of All Rus'". Under him, the double-headed eagle became the emblem of our state. Under him, the red brick Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day, was erected, the hated Golden Horde yoke was finally overthrown, in 1497 the first Code of Law was created and national governing bodies of the country began to be formed, in the newly built Faceted Chamber they received ambassadors from other than neighboring Russian principalities, and from the Pope, the German Emperor, the Polish King, the term “Russia” began to be used in relation to our state.

In 1497, a new set of laws of a single state was adopted - the Code of Laws of Ivan Sh. The Code of Laws included 68 articles and reflected the strengthening of the role of the central government in the state structure and legal proceedings of the country. Article 57 limited the right of peasant transition from one feudal lord to another to a certain period of the day for the entire country: a week before and a week after the autumn St. George's Day (November 26). For leaving, the peasant had to pay “elderly” - payment for the years lived in the old place. The limitation of peasant migration was the first step towards the establishment of serfdom in the country. However, until the end of the 16th century. peasants retained the right to move from one landowner to another.

REFORM OF THE ELECTED RADA.

Around 1549, a council of people close to him, called the Chosen Rada, formed around the young Ivan IV. The composition of the Chosen Rada is not entirely clear. It was headed by A.F. Adashev, who came from a rich, but not very noble family. Representatives of various strata of the ruling class participated in the work of the Chosen Rada. The elected council existed until 1560; she carried out transformations called reforms of the mid-16th century.

In January 1547, Ivan IV, having reached adulthood, was officially crowned king. The ceremony of accepting the royal title took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. From now on, the Grand Duke of Moscow began to be called Tsar.

A new authority arose - the Zemsky Sobor. Zemsky Sobors met irregularly and dealt with the most important state affairs, primarily issues of foreign policy and finance. During the interregnum, new kings were elected at Zemsky Sobors. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549. It decided to draw up a new Code of Law (approved in 1550) and outlined a reform program.

Even before the reforms of the mid-16th century. certain branches of public administration, as well as the management of individual territories, began to be entrusted to the boyars. This is how the first orders appeared - institutions in charge of branches of public administration or individual regions of the country. In the middle of the 16th century. There were already two dozen orders; at the head of the order was a boyar or clerk - a major government official. The orders were in charge of administration, tax collection and the courts. The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the management of the country.

A unified local management system began to take shape. Local administration (investigation and court in particularly important state affairs) was transferred to the hands of provincial elders (guba - district), elected from local nobles, zemstvo elders - from among the wealthy strata of the Chernososhny population where there was no noble land ownership, city clerks or favorite heads - in cities. Thus, in the middle of the 16th century. An apparatus of state power emerged in the form of an estate-representative monarchy.

The general trend towards centralization of the country necessitated the publication of a new set of laws - the Code of Laws of 1550. Taking the Code of Laws of Ivan III as a basis, the compilers of the new Code of Laws made changes to it related to the strengthening of central power. It confirmed the right of peasants to move on St. George’s Day and increased the payment for the “elderly”. For the first time, penalties were introduced for bribery of government officials.

Even under Elena Glinskaya, a monetary reform was launched, according to which the Moscow ruble became the main monetary unit of the country. The right to collect trade duties passed into the hands of the state. In the middle of the 16th century. a single unit for collecting taxes was established for the entire state - the large plow. Depending on the fertility of the soil, as well as the social status of the owner of the land, the plow amounted to 400-600 acres of land.

Military reform. The core of the army was the noble militia. Near Moscow, the “chosen thousand” were planted on the ground, which, according to the Tsar’s plan, were to become his support. For the first time, the “Code of Service” was drawn up. In 1550, a permanent streltsy army was created. At first, the archers recruited three thousand people. In addition, foreigners began to be recruited into the army, the number of whom was insignificant. Artillery was reinforced. The Cossacks were recruited to perform border service.

During military campaigns, localism was limited. In the middle of the 16th century. An official reference book was compiled - "The Sovereign's Genealogist", which streamlined local disputes.

In 1551, on the initiative of the Tsar and the Metropolitan, a Council of the Russian Church was convened, which was called the Stoglavoy, since its decisions were formulated in one hundred chapters. The decisions of church hierarchs reflected the changes associated with the centralization of the state. The Council approved the adoption of the Code of Law of 1550 and the reforms of Ivan IV.

Reforms of the 50s of the 16th century. contributed to the strengthening of the Russian centralized multinational state. They strengthened the power of the king, led to the reorganization of local and central government, and strengthened the military power of the country.

FOREIGN POLICY OF IVAN THE TERRIBLE. OPRICHNINA.

In 1533 Vasily III died, leaving his 3-year-old son Ivan IV as his heir. After the death of Elena Galitskaya, the mother of Ivan IV, a fierce struggle between princely-boyar groups for power unfolded. Taking advantage of the state's support, the Kazan Khanate undertook military campaigns in the Volga region and north of the Volga. Feudal circles interested in the centralization of power pinned their hopes on the growing Ivan IV. In January 1547 he was crowned king. For the first time, a Moscow prince was given the title of tsar, which elevated him above the titled nobility.

In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened.

In 1550 according to the new code of law, the power of the governors was sharply limited, military reform began to be carried out, on taxes and duties, church land ownership, etc. A circle of people close to him formed around the young king - the elected council.

The main objectives of Russian foreign policy in the 16th century. were: in the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, in the southeast and east - the struggle with the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia, in the south - the defense of the country from the raids of the Crimean Khan.

Annexation and development of new lands. The Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde, constantly threatened Russian lands. They held the Volga trade route in their hands; these were areas of fertile land. The peoples of the Volga region - the Mari, Mordovians, and Chuvash - sought liberation from the khan's dependence.

After a series of unsuccessful diplomatic and military attempts to subjugate the Kazan Khanate, in 1552 the 150,000-strong army of Ivan IV besieged Kazan, which at that time was a first-class military fortress. To facilitate the task of taking Kazan, a wooden fortress was built in the upper reaches of the Volga (in the Uglich area), which, disassembled, was floated down the Volga until the Sviyaga River flows into it. Here, 30 km from Kazan, the city of Sviyazhsk was built, which became a stronghold in the struggle for Kazan. The work on the construction of this fortress was headed by the talented master Ivan Grigorievich Vyrodkov. He supervised the construction of mine tunnels and siege devices during the capture of Kazan. Kazan was taken by storm, which began on October 1, 1552. As a result of the explosion of 48 barrels of gunpowder placed in the mines, part of the wall of the Kazan Kremlin was destroyed. Russian troops broke into the city through breaks in the wall. The Kazan Khan was captured.

Four years after the capture of Kazan in 1556, Astrakhan was annexed. In 1557, Chuvashia and most of Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. Dependence on Russia was recognized by the Nogai Horde, a state of nomads that separated from the Golden Horde at the end of the 14th century. Thus, new fertile lands and the entire Volga trade route became part of Russia. Russia's ties with the peoples of the North Caucasus and Central Asia expanded.

The annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of advancing into Siberia. Rich merchant-industrialists the Stroganovs received charters from Ivan IV (the Terrible) to own lands along the Tobol River. Using their own funds, they formed a detachment of 840 (according to other sources 600) people from free Cossacks, led by Ermak Timofeevich. In 1581, Ermak and his army penetrated the territory of the Siberian Khanate, and a year later defeated the troops of Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk (Isker). The population of the annexed lands had to pay rent in kind in fur - yasak.

In the 16th century The development of the territory of the Wild Field (fertile lands south of Tula) began. The Russian state was faced with the task of strengthening its southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Khan. For this purpose, the Tula (in the middle of the 16th century), and later the Belgorod (in the 30-40s of the 17th century) abatis lines were built - defensive lines consisting of forest rubble (zasek), in the intervals between which wooden fortresses were placed (fortresses), which closed the passages in the abatis for the Tatar cavalry.

Livonian War (1558-1583). Trying to reach the Baltic coast, Ivan IV fought the grueling Livonian War for 25 years. Russia's state interests required the establishment of close ties with Western Europe, which were then most easily achieved through the seas, as well as ensuring the defense of Russia's western borders, where its enemy was the Livonian Order. If successful, the opportunity to acquire new economically developed lands opened up. The reason for the war was the delay by the Livonian Order of 123 Western specialists invited to Russian service, as well as the failure of Livonia to pay tribute for the city of Dorpat (Yuryev) and the adjacent territory over the past 50 years. Moreover, the Livonians entered into a military alliance with the Polish king and the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

The beginning of the Livonian War was accompanied by victories of Russian troops, who took Narva and Yuriev (Dorpat). A total of 20 cities were taken. Russian troops advanced towards Riga and Revel (Tallinn). In 1560, the Order was defeated, and its master was captured. This entailed the collapse of the Livonian Order (1561), whose lands came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden. The new Master of the Order received Courland as his possession and recognized his dependence on the Polish king. The last major success at the first stage of the war was the capture of Polotsk in 1563.

The war became protracted, and several European powers were drawn into it. Controversies within Russia and disagreements between the Tsar and his entourage intensified. All this led to the cessation of the activities of the Elected Rada in 1560. Ivan IV took a course towards strengthening his personal power. In 1564, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who had previously commanded the Russian troops, went over to the side of the Poles. In these difficult circumstances for the country, Ivan IV introduced the oprichnina (1565-1572).

In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into one state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Union of Lublin). The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden captured Narva and carried out successful military operations against Russia. Only the defense of the city of Pskov in 1581, when its inhabitants repelled 30 assaults and made about 50 forays against the troops of the Polish king Stefan Batory, allowed Russia to conclude a truce for a period of ten years. A year later, the Truce of Plus was concluded with Sweden. The Livonian War ended in defeat. Russia gave the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Livonia in exchange for the return of captured Russian cities, except Polotsk. Sweden retained the developed Baltic coast, the cities of Korela, Yam, Narva, and Koporye. The failure of the Livonian War was ultimately a consequence of Russia's economic backwardness, which was unable to successfully withstand a long struggle against strong opponents. The ruin of the country during the oprichnina years only made matters worse.

Oprichnina. Ivan IV, fighting against the rebellions and betrayals of the boyar nobility, saw them as the main reason for the failures of his policies. He firmly stood on the position of the need for strong autocratic power, the main obstacle to the establishment of which, in his opinion, was the boyar-princely opposition and boyar privileges. The question was what methods would be used to fight. The urgency of the moment and the general underdevelopment of the forms of the state apparatus, as well as the character traits of the tsar, who was an extremely unbalanced person, led to the establishment of the oprichnina. Ivan IV dealt with the remnants of fragmentation using purely medieval means.

In January 1565, from the royal residence of the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, the tsar went to the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda through the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. From there he addressed the capital with two messages. In the first, sent to the clergy and the Boyar Duma, Ivan IV announced the renunciation of power due to the betrayal of the boyars and asked to be allocated a special inheritance - the oprichnina. In the second message, addressed to the townspeople of the capital, the tsar reported on the decision made and added that he had no complaints about the townspeople. Ivan the Terrible expected that he would be called to return to the throne. When this happened, the tsar dictated his conditions: the right to unlimited autocratic power and the establishment of the oprichnina. The country was divided into two parts: the oprichnina and the zemshchina. Ivan IV included the most important lands in the oprichnina. It included Pomeranian cities, cities with large settlements and strategically important ones, as well as the most economically developed areas of the country. The nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled on these lands. The population of the zemshchina had to support this army. The oprichnina, in parallel with the zemshchina, developed its own system of governing bodies. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine devotion of the guardsmen to the tsar and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country.

In an effort to destroy the separatism of the feudal nobility, Ivan IV did not stop at any cruelty. Oprichnina terror, executions, exiles began. In Tver, Malyuta Skuratov strangled Moscow Metropolitan Philip (Fedor Kolychev), who condemned the oprichnina lawlessness. In Moscow, Prince Vladimir Staripky, who was called there, the tsar’s cousin who claimed the throne, his wife and daughter were poisoned. His mother, Princess Evdokia Staripkaya, was also killed in the Goritsky Monastery on White Lake. The center and north-west of the Russian lands, where the boyars were especially strong, were subjected to the most severe defeat. In December 1569, Ivan undertook a campaign against Novgorod, whose inhabitants allegedly wanted to come under the rule of Lithuania. On the way, Klin, Tver, and Torzhok were destroyed. Particularly cruel executions (about 200 people) took place in Moscow on June 25, 1570. In Novgorod itself, the pogrom lasted six weeks. Thousands of its inhabitants died a cruel death, houses and churches were plundered. The oprichnina led to an even greater aggravation of contradictions within the country, worsened the situation of the peasantry and largely contributed to its enslavement.

In 1571, the oprichnina army was unable to repel a raid on Moscow by the Crimean Tatars, who burned the Moscow settlement - this revealed the inability of the oprichnina army to successfully fight external enemies. True, the following year, 1572, not far from Podolsk (the village of Molodi), 50 km from Moscow, the Crimeans suffered a crushing defeat from the Russian army, led by the experienced commander M.I. Vorotynsky. However, the tsar abolished the oprichnina, which in 1572 was transformed into the “Sovereign Court”.

The reign of Ivan the Terrible largely predetermined the course of the further history of our country - the “rust” of the 70-80s of the 16th century, the establishment of serfdom on a state scale and that complex knot of contradictions at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, which contemporaries called “troubles”.

TIME OF TROUBLES. THE BEGINNING OF THE ROMANOV DYNASTY.

Events at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. received the name "time of troubles". It affected all aspects of Russian life - economics, government, internal and external politics, ideology and morality. The causes of the unrest were the aggravation of social, class, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and under his successors.

The severe economic crisis was called the “ruin of the 70-80s of the 16th century.” The most economically developed center (Moscow) and north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country have become desolate. Part of the population fled, the other died during the years of the oprichnina and the Livonian War. More than 50% of arable land (and in some places up to 90%) remained uncultivated. The tax burden increased sharply, prices increased 4 times. In 1570-1571 A plague epidemic swept across the country. The peasant economy lost its stability, and famine began in the country. The central government took the path of attaching the main producer - the peasantry - to the land of the feudal landowners. At the end of the 16th century. In Russia, a system of serfdom was actually established on a state scale. Serfdom actually emerged as a state system at the end of the 16th century. and was finally legally formalized by the “Conciliar Code” of 1649.

In 1497, the Code of Laws of Ivan III introduced the autumn day of St. George's Day on a national scale - November 26th as a time of peasant transitions. At the same time, a fee was established for the “elderly” - for living on the land of the feudal lord. The Code of Law, adopted under Ivan IV in 1550, confirmed the right of peasants to move only on St. George’s Day and increased the size of the “elderly”, which made the transition even more difficult. In 1581, “reserved summers” were introduced for the first time - years in which peasants were prohibited from crossing even on St. George’s Day (from the word “commandment” - prohibition). For the 80-90s of the 16th century. it is necessary to compile scribe books. By 1592, the entire population was included in special books, and it became possible to establish which of the feudal lords belonged to the peasants, and a decree was issued prohibiting peasant transitions, which meant the establishment of serfdom. In 1597, a decree was first adopted to search for runaway peasants.

The state had to ensure the search and return of fugitive peasants to their owners. The introduction of the state system of serfdom led to a sharp aggravation of social contradictions in the country and created the basis for mass popular uprisings. The situation in Russia has become tense. The aggravation of social relations is one of the reasons for the troubled times.

The oprichnina did not completely resolve the disagreements within the ruling class. She strengthened the personal power of the tsar, but there was still a fairly strong boyars. The ruling class has not yet achieved strong consolidation. The contradictions intensified due to the end of the legitimate dynasty, which began with the legendary Rurik, and the accession of Boris Godunov to the throne.

Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich. On March 18, 1584, Ivan the Terrible died while playing chess. His eldest son Ivan was killed by his father in a fit of anger (1581), his youngest son Dmitry was only two years old. Together with his mother, Ivan IV's seventh wife Maria Naga, he lived in Uglich, which was given to him as an inheritance. The middle son of Ivan the Terrible, twenty-seven-year-old Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598), took the throne, gentle by nature, but incapable of governing the state. Realizing that the throne was passing to Blessed Feodor, Ivan IV created a kind of regency council under his son.

Boris Godunov. The actual ruler of the state was the tsar's brother-in-law, boyar Boris Fedorovich Godunov, whose sister Fedor was married to. Godunov endured a fierce struggle with the largest boyars for influence on state affairs. Among the boyars who were part of the regency council were Nikita and Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, the brother and nephew of the first wife of Ivan the Terrible, as well as Ivan Petrovich Shuisky, the father of the future Russian Tsar.

In 1591, under unclear circumstances, Tsarevich Dmitry, the last of the direct heirs to the throne, died in Uglich, allegedly running into a knife in a fit of epilepsy. Popular rumor, as well as accusations inspired by Godunov’s opponents, attributed to him the organization of the murder of the prince in order to seize power. With the death of the childless Fyodor Ivanovich in 1598, the old dynasty ended. A new tsar was elected at the Zemsky Sobor. The predominance of Boris Godunov's supporters at the council predetermined his victory.

Boris Godunov (1598-1605) was an energetic, ambitious, capable statesman. In difficult conditions - economic devastation, a difficult international situation - he continued the policies of Ivan the Terrible, but with less brutal measures. Godunov pursued a successful foreign policy. Under him, further advancement into Siberia took place, and the southern regions of the country were developed. Russian positions in the Caucasus strengthened. After a long war with Sweden, the Peace of Tyavzin was concluded in 1595. Russia regained its lost lands on the Baltic beret - Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Korelu. An attack by the Crimean Tatars on Moscow was prevented. However, weakened Russia did not have the strength to conduct large-scale military operations. Its strengthened neighbors - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, Crimea and Turkey - took advantage of this circumstance. The aggravation of international contradictions will be another reason for the events that broke out during the period of unrest.

A major success was the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia. The rank and prestige of the Russian Church increased, it finally became equal in rights in relation to other Orthodox churches. Job, a supporter of Godunov, was elected the first Russian patriarch in 1589. Four metropolitans (Novgorod, Kazan, Rostov, Krutitsky) and six archbishops were subordinate to him.

The main task of the new king and his advisers was to overcome economic ruin. Having given some benefits to the nobility and townspeople, the government at the same time took the path of further enslavement of the peasantry. This caused discontent among the broad masses.

Cotton Rebellion. The situation in the country has become even more aggravated due to crop failure. Prices have already increased more than a hundred times. Boris Godunov organized government works. But all measures were unsuccessful. In the center of the country (1603-1604) a revolt of serfs broke out under the leadership of Cotton Crookshanks. It was brutally suppressed, and Khlopok was executed in Moscow.

False Dmitry I. In 1602, a man appeared in Lithuania posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. Voivode Yuri Mnishek became the patron of False Dmitry.

According to the official version of the government of Boris Godunov, the person posing as Tsarevich Dmitry was the monk Grigory Otrepiev. Having secured the support of Polish-Lithuanian tycoons. False Dmitry secretly converted to Catholicism and promised the Pope to spread Catholicism in Russia. False Dmitry also promised to transfer the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and his bride Marina Mnishek, daughter of the Sandomierz governor, Seversky

(Chernigov region) and Smolensk lands, Novgorod and Pskov. False Dmitry's adventure was a hidden intervention. In 1604, False Dmitry, with the help of Polish magnates, recruited two thousand mercenaries and took advantage of the discontent of the Cossacks, undertook a campaign against Moscow. He was supported by many boyars and nobles who were dissatisfied with Godunov. False Dmitry was also supported by the masses, who pinned hopes on him for deliverance from oppression and improvement of their situation.

On the morning of April 13, 1605, the king died. A day later, an oath ceremony took place to the new tsar - Boris's son, sixteen-year-old Fyodor Borisovich. Tsar Fyodor Borisovich and his mother, at the request of the impostor, were arrested and secretly killed, and Patriarch Job was exiled to a monastery. 20 June-

nya 1605 False Dmitry, at the head of the army that had come over to his side, triumphantly entered Moscow and was proclaimed tsar. Moreover, he

began to call himself emperor. The new patriarch Ignatius crowned him king. Filaret (F.N. Romanov) was appointed Metropolitan of Rostov.

Once in Moscow, False Dmitry was in no hurry to fulfill his obligations to the Polish magnates. The continuation of the serfdom policy, the discontent of the Russian nobility, which especially intensified after the marriage of False Dmitry to Marina Mnishek, led to the organization of a boyar conspiracy against him. In May 1606, an uprising broke out against False Dmitry, led by the Shuisky boyars. False Dmitry was killed.

Vasily Shuisky. After the death of False Dmitry, the boyar Tsar Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610) ascended the throne. He gave a formalized obligation to preserve the privileges of the boyars; the nobility now tried to resolve the contradictions that had arisen with the help of the boyar tsar. Patriarch Ignatius the Greek was stripped of his rank for his support of False Monastery I. The Patriarchal throne was occupied by the outstanding patriot 70-year-old Kazan Metropolitan Hermogenes. By the summer of 1606, Vasily Shuisky managed to gain a foothold in Moscow, but the outskirts of the country continued to seethe. In 1606-1607 An uprising broke out under the leadership of Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov. Slaves, servicemen and townspeople, peasants, small and medium-sized feudal lords gathered under his banner. In July 1606 The swamp troops went on a campaign against Moscow, were defeated and retreated to Tula. On July 30, the siege of the city began, after 3 months the Bolotnikovites capitulated, and Bolotnikov himself was executed.

False Dmitry II. At a time when Vasily Shuisky was besieging I.I. Bolotnikov in Tula, on Bryashpin (Starodub) a new impostor appeared. By agreement with the Vatican, the Polish nobles, opponents of King Sigismund III (hetmans Lisovsky, Ruzhitsky, Sapieha), united with the Cossack chieftain I.I. Zarupki, nominating False Dmitry II (1607-1610) as a contender for the Russian throne. In appearance, this man resembled False Dmitry I. Apparently, he came from a church background. False Dmitry II in response to the call of I.I. Bolotnikov moved to Tula to join the rebels. The union did not take place, and in January 1608 the impostor launched a campaign against the capital. In the summer of 1608, False Dmitry approached Moscow, but

attempts to take the capital ended in vain. He stopped 17 km from the Kremlin, in the town of Tushino, and received the nickname “Tushino Thief”. Soon Marina Mnishek also moved to Tushino. For money, she recognized him as her husband. A secret wedding took place according to Catholic rites. Protests against the Polish invaders took place in a number of large cities of the North: Novgorod, Vologda, Veliky Ustyug.

The government of Vasily Shuisky, realizing that it was not able to cope with False Dmitry II, concluded an agreement with Sweden in Vyborg (1609). Russia renounced its claims to the Baltic coast, and the Swedes provided troops to fight False Dmitry II. Under the command of the talented 28-year-old commander M.V. Skopin-Shuisky, the Tsar's nephew, began successful actions against the Polish invaders. In response, Poland, which was at war with Sweden, declared war on Russia. In the fall of 1609, the troops of King Sigismund III besieged the city of Smolensk, which defended itself for more than 20 months. The king ordered the nobles to leave Tushino and go to Smolensk. The Tushino camp crumbled, the impostor was no longer needed by the Polish gentry, who switched to open intervention. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed.

Seven Boyars. In the summer of 1610, a coup took place in Moscow. The nobles, led by P. Lyapunov, overthrew Vasily Shuisky from the throne and forcibly tonsured him as a monk. Power was seized by a group of boyars led by F.I. Mstislavsky. This government, consisting of seven boyars, was called the "Seven Boyars". In August 1610, the Seven Boyars concluded an agreement to call Vladislav, the son of King Sigismund, to the Russian throne, and allowed intervention troops into the Kremlin. On August 27, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to Vladislav. This was a direct betrayal of national interests. The country faced the threat of losing its independence.

At the beginning of 1611, the first militia was created in the Ryazan land, led by the nobleman P. Lyapunov. The militia moved to Moscow, where an uprising broke out in the spring of 1611. The interventionists, on the advice of the traitorous boyars, set fire to the city. Here, in the Sretenka area, Prince D.M. was seriously wounded. Pozharsky, who led the forward detachments. The leaders of the militia spoke out in favor of returning the fugitive peasants to their owners. The first militia disintegrated.

In the fall of 1611, the townsman of Nizhny Novgorod, Kozma Minin, appealed to the Russian people to create a second militia. With the help of the population of other Russian cities, the material base for the liberation struggle was created: the people raised significant funds to wage war against the interventionists. The militia was headed by K. Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In August 1612 The militia of Minin and Pozharsky entered Moscow and forced the Polish garrison in the Kremlin to capitulate. Moscow was liberated.

In 1613, a Zemsky Council was held in Moscow, at which the question of choosing a new Russian Tsar was raised. On February 21, the cathedral chose Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the 16-year-old great-nephew of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife, Anastasia Romanova. An embassy was sent to the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma, where Mikhail and his mother were at that time. On May 2, 1613, Mikhail arrived in Moscow and was crowned king on July 11. Soon his father, Patriarch Filaret, took the leading place in governing the country. The government of Mikhail Fedorovich faced the most difficult task - eliminating the consequences of the intervention. After several military clashes and then negotiations, the Peace of Stolbovo was concluded with Sweden in 1617 (in the village of Stolbovo, near Tikhvin). Sweden returned the Novgorod land to Russia, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation. Thus, basically the territorial unity of Russia was restored, although part of the Russian lands remained with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. These are the consequences of the events of unrest in Russian foreign policy. In the internal political life of the state, the role of the nobility and the upper classes of the town increased significantly. During the turmoil, in which all layers and classes of Russian society took part, the question of the very existence of the Russian state and the choice of the path of development of the country was decided. It was necessary to find ways for the people to survive. Troubles settled primarily in the minds and souls of people. In the specific conditions of the beginning of the 17th century. a way out of the turmoil was found in the regions and the center realizing the need for strong statehood. The idea of ​​giving everything for the common good, rather than seeking personal gain, has won in people's minds. After a time of troubles, a choice was made in favor of preserving the largest power in eastern Europe. In the specific geopolitical conditions of that time, the path of further development of Russia was chosen: autocracy as a form of political government, serfdom as the basis of the economy, Orthodoxy as an ideology.