Indian artists - from origins to modern times. The Art of Ancient India The culture of India is one of the most ancient cultures of mankind, continuously developing over several millennia. For. Indian art in antiquity and the Middle Ages
The culture of any country is closely connected with its history, so when talking about the art of India, talking about its history is inevitable.
The following periods are distinguished in the history of ancient India:
Ancient India
The period of the Harappan (Indus) civilization (III millennium-XVII century BC)
Vedic period (XIII-VI centuries BC)
Early Vedic period (XIII-X centuries BC)
Late Vedic period (IX-VI centuries BC)
Buddhist period (V-III centuries BC)
Classical era (II century BC-VI century)
India of the Middle Ages
The period of Muslim domination (X-XII centuries)
Beginning of British rule (XVIII century)
The Harappan civilization was located in the Indus River valley. Its greatest flowering occurred in the 3rd millennium BC. e.
Vedic civilization provided the basis for Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society.
The empire reached its greatest prosperity under the reign of the Buddhist king Ashoka.
The period of the Gupta dynasty (III century) is considered to be the “golden age” of India.
After the Islamic invasion from Central Asia in the period from the 10th to the 12th centuries. Northern India came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate. Later, most of the subcontinent became part of the Mughal Empire. But several native kingdoms (the Vijayanagara Empire) continued to exist in the south of the peninsula, beyond the reach of the Mughals. In the 18th century The Mughal Empire declined and the Maratha Empire came to dominate the region.
Since the 16th century. Portugal, the Netherlands, France and Great Britain, interested in trade with India, seized power in the fragmented kingdoms of the peninsula and began the battle to establish colonies in Indian territory. By 1856, most of India came under the control of the British East India Company.
But this is a topic for another article.
And we will return to the art of Ancient India.
The history of sculpture and painting in India is in a sense the history of religious systems: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism. Since ancient times, the goal of the artist and sculptor has been to reveal to believers the truths of their religion. The culture of India has evolved from different eras of history, customs, traditions and ideas, both invaders and immigrants.
But in India, art has never been judged on the basis of its aesthetics. A valuable work in this country was considered to be one that could adequately be a material symbol of a deity if its execution complied with traditions and canonical regulations.
Painting
Early Indian paintings are considered to be rock paintings of primitive times. Petroglyphs were used by all tribal tribes; they were painted indoors.
Petroglyphs are the name given to all images on stone from Paleolithic times to the Middle Ages, with the exception of those that contain a well-developed system of signs. There is no absolutely unambiguous definition of petroglyphs. Petroglyphs are called both primitive cave hewn carvings and later ones.
The earliest and medieval paintings in India are Hindu, Buddhist, Jain.
The history of rock art in India dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. BC: cave frescoes of Bagha, Sittanavasala. The Ajanta and Ellora murals are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites and are a treasure trove of ancient art.
Padmapani Bodhisattva (Ajanta)
The rock-cut Bagh Caves, located in Madhya Pradesh, are famous for their wall paintings. According to legend, these caves were founded by the Buddhist monk Dataka.
Bagh
Previously it was believed that the Bagh caves date back to the 7th century. n. e., but the wall inscriptions in them indicate that the caves were created in the period from the 4th to the 6th centuries. AD
Bagh frescoes
In the 10th century with the decline of Buddhism, the caves were abandoned, but in 1982 they were restored. The most famous frescoes of Bagh are done in tempera.
The most popular method of applying ornaments in India since ancient times is still rangoli; it can often be found on the thresholds of many Indian houses, especially in South India.
Rangoli (drawing-prayer) - applying an ornament to the external walls of the house and to the cleared and compacted area in front of the entrance to the house. The types of these designs vary among different peoples of India; many go back to ancient times, when they were attributed magical significance and were painted on the ground near altars and places of sacrifice. One can trace a direct connection between some of them and patterns on seals and vessels found during excavations in the Indus Valley.
Currently, rangoli competitions, this very ancient art form, are held.
During the competition
Indian miniature
Miniature is an elegant type of painting. This is a complex, painstaking and delicate style of writing. Paints for painting miniatures in India were made from natural materials: minerals, plants, precious stones, gold, silver, etc.
East Indian school of miniature painting of the 11th-12th centuries.
The earliest examples of Indian miniatures date back to the period of the Buddhist Pala Empire. Pala's miniatures are illustrations of religious Buddhist manuscripts. The style of the Pala school is skillful, graceful lines, muted tones, skillful modeling of figures, and the use of natural colors. The Pala school emphasizes the symbolic use of color in paintings.
In addition to the eastern, there were other Indian schools of miniature painting: Western, Rajput, Mughal, Jain, Deccan, etc.
An example of the Mughal school of miniatures
Sculpture
The first sculptures in India appeared during the Indus civilization: stone and bronze figures were discovered. Later, Hindu, Buddhist and Jain sculpture received further development. These were complex carved ornaments, both temple and bronze. Some huge temples (for example, at Ellora) were carved directly from a large mountain.
The cave temple at Ellora was created approximately from the 6th to the 9th centuries. ad.
Of the 34 caves of Ellora, 12 caves in the south are Buddhist, 17 in the center are dedicated to Hindu gods, 5 caves to the north are Jain.
Buddhist Vishwakarman (divine master, creator of the universe according to Hindu mythology) from a cave in Ellora
Sculptures in the north-west of the country were made of stucco, slate or clay, indicating a combination of Indian style with classical Hellenistic or even Greco-Roman. Almost simultaneously, a culture of pink sandstone sculptures developed in Mathura.
During the time of the Gupta state (IV-VI centuries), sculpture reached high standards of execution.
Sculptures on the coin
These and other styles throughout India eventually developed into classical Indian art, which also contributed to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout Southeast, Central and East Asia.
The famous "dancer" from Mohenjo-Daro (Harrapian, or Indus, civilization)
Architecture
Indian architecture has been constantly evolving throughout time. Early architectural works are found in the Indus Civilization (2600-1900 BC), which is characterized by the magnificent layout of cities and houses.
Monumental construction, bronze metallurgy, and small sculpture were developed. Public toilets were discovered in Mohenjo-Daro, as well as the city's sewage system.
In this civilization, crafts were developed, in particular, the production of ceramics.
Pottery of the Indus Civilization (2500-1900 BC)
During the Mauryan empire and the Gupta state and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes were built - the already named cave temple in Ellora and the monumental Great Stupa in Sanchi.
Stupa in Sanchi
A stupa is a Buddhist architectural and sculptural religious structure with a hemispherical outline. Presented mainly in monolithic form; less common are stupas with interior spaces. The first stupas appeared in India in pre-Buddhist times and initially served as monuments on the graves of rulers. The word "stupa" means "knot of hair" or "top of the head", as well as "heap of stones and earth". The tradition of cremating bodies after death led to the fact that there were no burials in the usual sense; it was only possible to preserve ashes or unburned remains. What was left after cremation was placed in stupas. So gradually they turned into reliquaries containing the remains of spiritually outstanding personalities.
Later in South India, the temples of Chennakesava in Belur and Samanathapur, Hoysaleswara in Halebid, Brahideeshwarar in Thanjavur, the Sun Temple in Konarak, the Ranganatha Temple in Srirangam, and the Buddhist stupa in Bhattiprolu were erected.
Temple of the Sun (XIII century)
Gate of the Brahadisvara Temple in Thanjavur (IX-XI centuries)
Borobodur (a Buddhist stupa and associated temple complex of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition on the island of Java in Indonesia. Other architectural structures indicate a strong Indian influence on the architecture of Southeast Asia, as they were built in a style almost identical to the traditional Indian style of religious buildings.
Borobodur (Indonesia)
The traditional Vastu Shastra system is the Indian version of Feng Shui. It's not entirely clear which system is older, but they are very similar. Vastu Shastra also tries to harmonize the flow of energy (life force), but it has differences in the structure of the house, for example, it does not take into account the need for the correct arrangement of objects in the home.
Vastu Shastra
With the advent of Islamic influence from the West, Indian architecture adapted to new religious traditions. For example, the famous Taj Mahal.
The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum-mosque in Agra, India, on the banks of the Jamna River. Built by order of Tamerlane’s descendant, the padishah of the Mughal Empire, Shah Jahan, in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died giving birth to their fourteenth child in the 17th century. Later, Shah Jahan himself was buried here. UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The walls of the mausoleum are lined with polished translucent marble; it was brought 300 km away). The marble is inlaid with gems: turquoise, agate, malachite, carnelian, etc. Marble looks white in bright daylight, pink at dawn, and silver on a moonlit night.
ART OF INDIA
HARAPPAN AND MOHENJO-DARO
MAURYA EMPIRE
KUSHAN EMPIRE
GUPTA EMPIRE
INDIAVI- X CENTURIES
EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD
THE GREAT MUGHAL EMPIRE
ART OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN
BURMA
THAILAND
KAMPUCCHEA
INDONESIA
ART OF INDIA
From antiquity until the 19th century, India did not have a common name. Foreign tribes, such as the Persians and Chinese, called the country Sindhu, as well as the Indus River (in the pronunciation of the Greeks - Indos and Indicos). The Muslims who conquered India in the 12th-13th centuries gave it the name Hindustan (Country of the Hindus), which in Europe sounded like Hindustan. The word "India" in its modern meaning appeared only in the 19th century.
In the east, India is washed by the waters of the Bay of Bengal, in the west - by the Arabian Sea. In the north-west of India there is the Hindu Kush mountain system, in the north the border of India is the world's largest mountain system, the Himalayas. According to the ideas of the ancient Indians, deities lived on the snowy peaks of the Himalayas. For example, the Indians associated Mount Chomolungma (Everest) with the legendary Mount Meru, on which the sky rests. On it are the cities of the gods and the dwellings of the heavenly spirits. Mount Kailasa was considered the abode of the god Shiva. Therefore, the Himalayas became one of the favorite themes in the monumental art of Ancient and Medieval India.
Many myths are associated with the deep rivers of India - the Ganga and the Indus. According to one of them, the sacred Ganga descended to earth from heaven to give water to all living things. The Indus and its tributaries are glorified in the most ancient sacred texts - the Vedas.
India is inhabited by numerous multilingual tribes and peoples who have different origins and cultures. Various religions coexist surprisingly peacefully here: Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. However, most of the population professes Hinduism. It includes not only belief in the gods revered in this religion, but also the main religious rites performed in their honor. Hinduism is an ancient tradition of spiritual and material culture, it is the traditional Indian idea of God, the world, and themselves. In other words, Hinduism is a way of life of the people of India.
The religious views of Indians on the world are clearly and succinctly expressed in their original fine art. The most ancient ideas about the origin and structure of the Universe, about the gods who created it, about the connections and structures that exist in it, literally permeate Indian art throughout its centuries-old history.
The inexhaustible source from which Indian artists, sculptors and architects drew models for artistic forms was nature. Masters likened elements of architecture or sculpture to the forms of plants and animals. The works of art created by their hands did not simply fit into the natural landscape, but merged with it into a single harmonious ensemble. These features of Indian art appeared already at the earliest stages of its development.
HARAPPAN AND MOHENJO-DARO
India was inhabited in ancient times - in the 7th millennium BC. e. Ancient Indians cultivated cereals and domesticated cattle.
The oldest Indian civilization arose in the Indus basin in the 3rd millennium BC. e. The most significant finds related to this culture were made in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, ancient cities located in what is now Pakistan. In the 50s . XIX century English general A. Cunningham, examining ruins near the village of Harappa, discovered a seal with unknown writing. Systematic excavations here began only in the 20s. XX century. The culture of the newly discovered civilization was called the Harappan or Mohenjo-Daro culture.
Harappan settlements were located over a vast territory: in the east it extended to Delhi, and in the south to the shores of the Arabian Sea. It is believed that the Harappan civilization existed from the middle of the 3rd to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e.
The high level of development of the Harappan civilization is evidenced by the strict planning of cities, the presence of writing and works of art. The language and writing of Harappa have not yet been deciphered, although many seals with inscriptions have been found to date.
Cities were built according to a clear plan: streets intersected at right angles. Almost all large cities consisted of two parts: the “lower” and “upper” cities. The "Upper City" was a fortress on a hill; representatives of the city authorities and priests probably lived in it. There were various public buildings here. Such are, for example, the large granaries in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The famous baths of Mohenjo-Daro are one of the mysteries of ancient Indian civilization. Whether they provided everyday comfort for the population or served as pools for ritual ablutions has not yet been determined. In the “upper city,” however, no palaces or temples were found. This feature significantly distinguishes the Harappan culture from the civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Western Asia.
The main part of the population lived in the “lower city”. The houses were built from baked bricks and consisted of several rooms. Wealthy townspeople lived in two- and three-story houses. The sewers that existed on every street constituted one of the oldest urban sewer systems in the world.
Fine art is known from the finds of archaeologists - seals-amulets, figurines made of copper, stone and baked clay.
A bronze figurine of a naked girl dancer was discovered in Moheidjo Daro. With her right hand akimbo, she seems to be waiting for the moment to start dancing. She holds a lamp with her left hand in bracelets, which may indicate that she is performing a ritual dance. Apparently, it was in Harappan art that the dance motif, so popular in Indian sculpture, first appeared.
Mohenjo-Daro.
Excavations.
III - II millennium
BC e.
India.
Dancer figurine
from Mohenjo-Daro.
III - II millennium
BC e.
National Museum, Delhi.
India.
Male bust
from Mohenjo-Daro.
III - II millennium
BC e.
National Museum, Delhi.
India.
One of the largest sculptures found in Mohenjo-Daro is a chest-to-chest image of a bearded man with large facial features depicted schematically. Only long, half-closed eyes stand out, the pupils of which are brought to the bridge of the nose, which probably means introspection. He is dressed in an ornamented robe slung over his left shoulder, and his head is decorated with a ribbon with a buckle on his forehead. Researchers believe that the bust depicts a priest or an ancient deity.
A special group of finds consists of seals. They have been found in almost all the major cities of the Indus Valley, now there are more than two thousand of them. They are round, square or cylindrical plates made of copper, ivory, clay with an in-depth image; Such seals give relief impressions. On the back of each of them there is a small protrusion with a hole for a lace. Usually the seals were carved with images of a deity or sacred animal and an inscription. Animals - bull, unicorn, mountain goat, elephant, tiger, cobra, fish, crocodile - could symbolize one or another deity, denote a natural element or the seasons of the year.
Very little is known about the religion of the ancient Harappans. There is no exact data about the reasons for the decline of the Harappan civilization.
In the 2nd millennium BC. e. Indo-European tribes of the Aryans began to settle in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges, who invaded India from the northwest - through passes in the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush and Suleiman Mountains.
Information about the culture of the Aryans has reached us thanks to the Vedas - sacred texts compiled in the ancient Indian language - Sanskrit. The main text, the Rig Veda (XI-X centuries BC), is a collection of hymns to the Aryan gods. The Rig Veda has become an invaluable source of information about the religion and mythology of the Aryan tribes. Their main deities were Surya - the sun god, Indra - the lord of thunder and thunder, Agni - the god of fire, Soma - the god of the intoxicating divine drink.
Seals from Mohenjo-Daro. III - II millennium
BC e.
National Museum, Delhi.
India.
The Aryans lived mostly in villages; houses were built from brick, clay, bamboo, reeds, and wood. At the site of Aryan settlements, cult utensils that were used in Vedic rites are often discovered: spoons, pots, ladles for oil. Rites were probably performed in the open air, and sacrifices were performed on temporary altars, either stone or wooden.
The period from the first Vedas to the dynasty of the Mauryan rulers of India (X-IV centuries BC) did not leave any monuments of material culture. The epics of Ancient India - "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" - tell about this time, which mentions many ancient dynasties and names of states. For centuries, the fine arts of India have drawn from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana themes and images that are depicted in architectural and sculptural ensembles, wall paintings and miniatures.
MAURYA EMPIRE
In 321 BC. e. The first united state arose in India - the Mauryan Empire. Their capital - Pataliputra (in the Ganges Valley) - was described by ancient Greek authors. The city was surrounded by a powerful wall with watchtowers and a moat. Most architectural structures were made of wood.
Stone began to be widely used in construction and sculpture during the reign of King Ashoka (268-232 BC), which is primarily associated with the establishment of Buddhism as the state religion. The authorities sought to perpetuate the foundations of Buddhism in monumental art, which is commonly called “the art of Ashoka.” These are, first of all, memorial columns on which the ruler’s decrees are carved. Such a column cannot be called an architectural structure in the full sense of the word: it combines elements of architecture and sculpture.
The pillar, or stambha, is a well-polished stone pillar. Stambhas are more than ten meters high and end with a capital with sculptural images of animals. The most famous of them is the Lion Capital from Sarnath (mid-3rd century BC). The pillar that carried this capital, according to legend, was placed on the spot where Buddha delivered his first sermon.
Since the time of King Ashoka, Buddhist memorial and funerary monuments have become widespread in architecture - stupas. Early stupas in Buddhism served to store relics of the Buddha himself. There is a legend that Buddha was once asked what his burial structure should be like. The teacher laid his cloak on the ground and turned a round begging bowl onto it. So stupa
Stambha of Ashoka. Middle III V. BC e.
India.
Stambha of Ashoka.
Fragment.
Middle III V. BC e.
India.
*Nirvana is a psychological state of completeness of inner being, absence of desires, perfect satisfaction, absolute detachment from the outside world, liberation from the shackles of matter, an endless chain of births and deaths (samsara).
**Buddhism is a world religion along with Christianity and Islam. One of the main ideas of Buddhism is the vision of life as suffering. You can overcome it and know the truth by following the path of salvation. The highest goal in Buddhism is nirvana - enlightenment, liberation of a person from the captivity of earthly rebirths and, finally, union with the cosmic order - the Absolute.
from the very beginning acquired a hemispherical shape.
The hemisphere, a symbol of Heaven and infinity, in Buddhism means the nirvana of Buddha and Buddha himself. The central pole of the stupa is the axis of the Universe, connecting Heaven and Earth, a symbol of the World Tree of Life. The “umbrellas” at the end of the pole, the steps of the ascent to nirvana, are also considered a symbol of power.
One of the oldest surviving stupas built under the Mauryas is the stupa at Sanchi (circa 250 BC). Later it was rebuilt and slightly increased in size. The hemispherical dome of the stupa rests on a round base with a terrace that served for ritual circumambulation. Stairs lead to the terrace on the south side. The dome of the stupa is built on top of a stone cube with a square fence, the shape of which follows the outlines of the altars of the Vedic era and can be considered a symbol of the Earth or Mount Meru. The stupa is surrounded by a massive fence. There are gates in it on the four sides of the world - torans, decorated with relief.
An early stupa was also erected at Bharhut. A fence with a gate has survived to this day. The building itself from the time of King Ashoka has not survived. On the reliefs of the fence posts, the most ancient deities appear in human form: yakshas and yakshinis - spirits of the underground depths and forces of nature, closely associated with the cult of fertility. Since the Yakshinis were descended from the goddesses of the plant kingdom, they were sometimes depicted as tree spirits. In Buddhism, yakshas and yakshinis were considered lower deities, but their role was significant, since in a broad sense they were guardians of the teaching, and in a narrower sense, of the holy place, Buddhist building from evil spirits, therefore they were often depicted in pairs on the fences and gates of the stupa, and as well as other religious buildings.
Another type of Buddhist architecture is cave temples. The Lomas Rishi Cave at Bodh Gaya - an oval sanctuary and rectangular hall - was carved under Ashoka
(around 250 BC). The walls of the temple are carefully polished. Its facade and plan served as models for later religious buildings of the 1st century. n. e.
Monumental stone sculpture is an art form that became widespread under the Mauryas. In the sculpture of early Buddhism, images of Buddha in human form were not found.
Relief of a stupa column in Bharhut. III V. BC e.
India.
Lion capital of the stambha at Sarnath. Middle III V. BC e.
Archaeological Museum, Sarnath. India.
Mortar. Ill -- I centuries BC e.
India.
Buddha and his teachings were represented in the images of the sacred Bo tree (under which the Teacher achieved enlightenment), the throne of Buddha and the Wheel of the Law, an image of a stupa or the footprint of a great preacher. These images symbolized various stages of the Teacher’s life path: birth, dissemination of the teachings, achievement of nirvana. The style of these images is generally decorative and extremely reminiscent of wood or ivory carvings.
Under the Mauryas, statues were created that are still striking today with their monumental image, completeness and perfection of form. This is the sculpture of a Yakshini from Didarganj (circa 3rd century BC). The goddess in the form of a young woman stands holding a fan in her hands. She has curvaceous, heavy shapes (wide hips, slightly protruding belly, large breasts). Excellent polishing gives the status of completeness, and the large forms of the yakshini are surprisingly combined with the smallest details of her clothes and jewelry.
KUSHAN EMPIRE
The flourishing of Indian art, the emergence of new religious images (primarily the image of Buddha), the development of the main trends in architecture and sculpture established under the Mauryas, date back to the era of the Kushan dynasty (1st century BC - 3rd century AD) . The Kushan rulers created a huge power that included Northern India, the areas of modern Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.
In the 1st century BC e. Cave temples - chaityas - appeared in the religious architecture of India. An example is the Chaitya located in Karli. In front of the cave stood two columns, crowned with capitals similar to those of the Mauryans. The most important detail of the facade of the cave is the huge horseshoe-shaped window, which serves as the main window in the temple. There are three entrances to the cave, giving rise to corridors symbolizing the path of Buddha. The central corridor is separated from the side corridors by rows of columns with sculptural capitals. In this architectural space, lively
Chaitya in Karli. Interior. I V. BC e. India.
Donors. Relief of a chaitya in Karli. I V. BC e. India.
*Chaitya Buddhist religious building, temple-prayer, carved into the rock; sometimes a separate building.
This sculpture creates an unusual effect of the play of light and shadow, transforming the interior, the symbolism of which is the stupa placed in the temple.
Sculptural reliefs of male and female figures arranged in pairs adorn the outer façade of the chaitya at Karli. Perhaps the donors with whose funds the temple was built are depicted here. The interpretation of male figures combines masculinity and softness. They have powerful shoulders and a thin waist, but their body proportions, softness and smoothness of shape are close to those of women. The sculptures of women are likened to the traditional Indian image of the goddess of fertility. It is possible that such a tradition influenced the formation of the ideal of not only female but also male beauty, which became the embodiment of a person’s internal energy and vitality. The couples depicted on the facade of the chaitya personify both the two ideals of beauty and the two principles in nature - male and female. Their union gives birth to all life on earth.
In Buddhist architecture, the construction of fences around temples and stupas has become a tradition. Fences and gates were still richly decorated with sculpture and relief compositions. The torans of the stupa in Sanchi (1st century BC) are widely known for their reliefs, which here form a single whole with the architecture.
The reliefs depict people and animals, architectural motifs, household objects, and plant ornaments. The image of a Yakshini from the eastern Torana is especially expressive. The naked figure of the tree goddess gracefully bends, her hands reach out to the trunk of the mango tree and its lush crown. Her movements are light and graceful, her pose is free and natural. The standard of beauty for a woman and the goddess of fertility continues to be emphatically rounded hips and bust.
In the religions of Buddhism and Hinduism, great importance is attached to the king-
Stupa in Sanchi. Carved stone gate. I V. BC e.
India.
I V. BC e.
India.
animals. In the Indian mind, people, animals, plants and even the highest deities are always connected with each other by inextricable bonds. In the multi-figure scenes, one is struck by the feeling of all-pervading life, the energy animating all forms. Love for nature, admiration for its power and abundance, life triumphant in all its manifestations - this is the main theme of Indian art, and in particular the architectural and plastic ensemble in Sanchi.
In the I-IV centuries. n. e. Significant changes have occurred in the artistic culture of India. In the visual arts, Buddha began to be represented in the form of a person, and not in the form of symbols - the sacred Bo tree, the Wheel of the Law, etc. During this period, among others, three main schools of Buddhist sculpture stand out: Gandhara (northwest), Mathura (north) and Amaravati (south).
Gandhara (now in Pakistan) is an ancient historical region in Northwestern India. Gandhara art reached its peak at the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries. Under the influence of the culture of countries located west of India, in Gandhara the image of Buddha acquired Hellenistic features. An early type of Gandhara Buddha can be considered his image from Hoti-Mardan (2nd century). This standing Teacher statue is beautifully crafted. Numerous folds of clothing envelop the entire figure of the Buddha. The correct proportions of the flexible, slender body betray the Greek tradition in sculpture. However, Indian features can also be traced in the image. First of all, the statue emphasizes inner concentration rather than physical beauty.
On the border between Indian and Hellenistic traditions, a statue of a seated Buddha was created from Takht-i-Bakhi (circa 300). The appearance of the Teacher is clear, full of peace and concentration, extremely calm. The Buddha's pose with crossed and tucked legs, with the soles turned up - the "lotus" pose - has since become canonical for all schools of Buddhist sculpture. The fingers of the Teacher's hands touch in the position
Buddha statue from Hoti Mardan. II V. India.
Reliefs of the stupa gate at Sanchi. Fragments. I V. BC e.
India.
Buddha statue at Takht-i-Bahi. Around 300. State Museums, Berlin-Dahlem.
*Hellenistic art (last quarter of the 4th-1st centuries BC . ) was common in the territories conquered by Alexander the Great. The art combined the traditions of Greek and local cultures.
"teachings". A system began to take shape in Indian plastic arts wise, when certain stages of the Buddha's sacred path were expressed through specific positions of the hands, palms and fingers. The robe, gathered in folds, thrown over the Buddha's shoulders, completely covers the Buddha's body, without, however, hiding his large forms.
Another center for the development of sculpture was Ma'thura. Here the image of Buddha was created, which received a purely Indian interpretation, as well as images of other Buddhist characters. Buddha in Mathura sculpture is often accompanied by bodhisattvas (Teacher's assistants) or yakshas. The rounded faces of the images are illuminated with a slight smile, and the poses very dynamic.
On a stela from Katra (early 2nd century) Buddha appears sitting on a throne supported by three lions. His pose is energetic, his body has smooth, feminine contours. Buddha's gesture - bending at the elbow and raising his right hand - means approval. The cloak thrown over the left shoulder does not hide the half-naked body and serves rather as decoration. The Buddha's face, round, with plump lips folded into a light, patronizing smile, is calm and impassive. He looks straight ahead, as intended by his gesture of approval. There is a halo behind the deity’s head, and behind his back there are two male figures with fans. Perhaps these are bodhisattvas or yakshas.
In Amaravati, the image of Buddha first appeared in sculptural relief on the well-preserved facing slabs of a stupa (2nd century). The Buddha of Amaravati appears seated in the lotus position on a throne; a halo, like an umbrella, covers his head. The images of Buddha on these reliefs are quite conventional; they do not have as many details as in sculpture belonging to other schools.
The original art of various regions of Ancient India, developing, laid the foundation for the artistic traditions of the next period - the art of the Gupta Empire (IV-VI centuries).
GUPTA EMPIRE
For a long time, India did not suffer from foreign invasions. During the reign of the Guptas (320 - 6th century), science, philosophy, and literature flourished. Ancient oral treatises on various fields of knowledge were recorded. India was famous for its Buddhist universities in Taxila, Nalanda, and Ajanta. The rulers of the Gupta dynasty patronized Buddhism, but were themselves adherents of Hinduism: they worshiped Krishna, the warrior Durga (the wife of Shiva), the Great Shiva himself, and Surya, the sun deity.
Literary sources indicate a wide scale of construction during that period: numerous Buddhist and Hindu temples and palaces were erected. For example, Durga temple in Aihole
Buddha Stele from Katra. Start II V.
Archaeological Museum, Muttra. India.
*Mudras are the expression of symbols, concepts, as well as stages of spiritual perfection through the position and gestures of fingers and hands.
**Urna" (the point between the eyebrows) of the Buddha is a sign of perfection and chosenness; ushni"sha (a semicircular protrusion on the head) is a symbol of the highest measure of knowledge and wisdom.
***Stela - a vertically standing stone slab with an inscription or relief.
****Guptas are a dynasty of rulers of the ancient Indian state of Magadan in northern India. By the end of IV, they united most of Northern India under their rule.
Hinduism is the main religion of India, widespread in other Asian countries. One of its provisions is the doctrine of the reincarnation of souls, conditioned by previous actions, virtuous or bad. The supreme deities of Hinduism are Krahma (Creator of the world), Vishnu (Preserver God) and Shiva (Destroyer God).
Cave temples at Ajanta. IV - VII centuries
(VI century) and the Vishnu temple (V-VI centuries) in Deogah.
Cave architecture developed during the Gupta era. An example of magnificent unity of architecture,
sculpture and painting is the cave complex in Ajanta (IV-VII centuries). Among the buildings, the most notable are the chaityas and viha"ry - hostels for Buddhist monks.
The rock ensembles of Ajanta are famous primarily for their painting. This type of fine art has been known in India since the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. However, since the picturesque layer is quickly destroyed under the influence of a humid climate, the Ajanta cave temples are perhaps the only surviving monument by which one can judge the paintings of the Gupta era. The Ajanta murals date back to the 4th-7th centuries, therefore the paintings made in the Gupta era are included in it only as an integral part. Paintings have been preserved only in sixteen caves. Ceilings, walls and even columns were painted here.
The paintings of the caves are complex in content; there are many characters in the compositions, but there is no hint of conveyance
Paintings of temples in Ajanta. IV - VII centuries
India.
The perspectives and volumes of the figures are slightly outlined. Line, color and rhythm form the basis of the entire pictorial ensemble. The variety of colors is small, but their rich combinations and contrasts evoke an unusual emotional feeling. The colors on the murals seem to glow in the dark. There is a feeling that the earthly and the heavenly are harmoniously united in this temple.
The influence of the Ajanta complex on Indian art is enormous. The main stylistic and ideological features of this monument are reflected in the sculpture of the Gupta era. The Gupta Buddha is an ideal image, embodying the idea of achieving nirvana. This is exactly how he appears in the famous statue from Sarnath (5th century). The Divine Buddha sits on a throne, richly decorated with sculptures and ornaments. His figure is devoid of all the features of living human flesh. The Buddha sits in the lotus position, his hands folded in a teaching gesture.
In the Gupta artistic culture, Buddhist art experienced its last heyday, giving way for a long time to the depiction of the gods of Hinduism.
INDIAVI- X CENTURIES
In the 6th century, after the decline of the Gupta dynasty, the country again disintegrated into small states, whose political rulers relied not only on military force, but also on the Hindu religion. The pantheon of this religion is extremely extensive. In the Middle Ages, temples were erected to the main Hindu gods - Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, components of the Trimurti.
In the 7th century, in the south of India, a huge temple ensemble was erected in the port city of Mahabalipuram. This sacred complex was erected on a natural site located between the mountains and the ocean. Thus, the complex seemed to connect two natural elements:
water and land. The ensemble included Hindu cave temples, eight small sanctuaries carved out of solid rock, the famous Coastal Shiva Temple, as well as the well-known rock relief “The Descent of Haiti to Earth.”
The architecture of the complex features monolithic ratha temples dedicated to the epic heroes of the Mahabharata. These are Arjuna's ratha, Bhima's ratha, etc. These small temples of Mahabalipuram alternate with large figures of sacred animals carved out of rocks - elephants, lions and bulls. Animals “walking” and “resting” among the rathas seem to connect the architectural forms with the coastal landscape.
In the temple complex of Mahabalipuram, sculpture not only decorates the architecture, but also serves as the center of the entire composition. Such a huge (about thirty meters in length) na-
rock relief “The Descent of the Ganges River to Earth.” The main theme of the relief is the legend of how the sacred Ganga, which previously flowed in the skies, was cast down to earth by the gods in response to prayers, as well as the exploits of people.
In front of the rocky relief there is a platform where religious rituals were played in ancient times.
Coastal Shiva temple in Mahabalipuram. Around 700
*Trimurti (triple image) is the trinity of the main gods of Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu and Thorns. Brahma is the Creator of the world, Vishnu is the Guardian God, Shiva is the Destroyer God.
**Ratha is a cart still used in South India during temple festivals. An image of a deity is transported on it. A small monolithic (carved out of rock) temple also began to be called Ratha. intended for storing and worshiping a statue of a deity. The small ratha temple symbolized the chariot of the god.
***Ganga is a sacred celestial river in the mythology of Ancient India, the image of which is associated with the feminine principle.
theatrical performances. In such cases, the relief served as a kind of background and replaced theatrical scenery. Thus, the theme of the triumph of all living things, fed by a single source - the sacred Ganga, became the main theme of the temple complex in Mahabalipuram.
The largest temple centers of the early and mature Middle Ages, located in Central and South-East India, are Bhubaneswar and Khajuraho.
A typical example of temple architecture of this period is the Kandarya Mahadeva complex in Khajuraho (X-XI centuries). The individual parts of the building - the sanctuary, the hall for worship, the vestibule, the entrance - are on the same axis and tightly adjacent to each other. Each of these parts is completed with a separate tower superstructure. The sanctuary tower is the highest, the remaining towers descend in steps towards the entrance. The temples of Khajuraho are decorated with reliefs that are magnificent examples of temple sculpture. The depictions of figures of men and women are some of the best in medieval art. Light tilts and expressive plasticity of the figures create a whimsical complex rhythm of the entire sculptural design of this structure. The ensemble at Khajuraho is another magnificent example of artistic culture, which embodies the principle of unity. This feature of Indian art was described in this way by the famous philosopher of the 19th century. Rabindranath Tagore: “India has always had one unchanging ideal - merging with the Universe.”
Thus, the works of medieval sculpture embodied the same ideas about the unity of the Universe as in the monumental art of India.
Relief of the temple in Mahabalipuram. Fragment. VII V. India.
Kandarya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho. X-XI V.
India.
Shiva Nataraja from South India. XI V. City Museum, Madras. India.
Shiva Nataraja - Lord of Dance. Sometimes Shiva is called the Cosmic Dancer, since his destructive energy is realized at the moment of dance: by performing it, God destroys everything old in the Universe and at the same time opens a new cycle of life. Shiva Nataraja was depicted standing on one right leg, slightly bent at the knee. His left leg gracefully put forward in a dance step. Shiva has four hands, the gesture of each of them has a certain meaning. God can also hold a sacred object in his hand: for example, a drum - a symbol of cosmic rhythm. Shiva's head is decorated with a crown with a skull - a sign of victory over death. The figure God is usually enclosed in a bronze halo with tongues of flame, personifying the Universe in which the Great God, the destroyer and the creator, dances.
Sculptures of temples in Khajuraho. X - XI centuries India.
EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD
Muslim conquerors first invaded Indian territory back in the 8th century. n. e. Five centuries later, Muslim rulers managed to conquer almost the entire country. The art of India of the Islamic era can be divided into the early Islamic period (XI - first half of the 16th century) and the period of the Mughal dynasty (second half of the 16th - 18th centuries).
The period of early Islamic rule in India began with the Muslim invasion at the beginning of the 11th century. The conquerors mercilessly destroyed the shrines of the “infidels” - Hindu and Buddhist temples - and entire cities, slaughtered the population, and took master craftsmen into slavery. History of India XIII-XIV centuries. marked by a constant change of Muslim dynasties. The struggle for power greatly weakened the unity of Muslim rulers, and in the 15th - early 16th centuries. In India, several independent Islamic states were formed that were at war with each other, such as Kashmir, Delhi, Bengal, Malwa, and Gujarat.
The conquerors tried to adapt the remains of destroyed architecture for their own art and construction. Thus, entire fragments of buildings, primarily columns, pillars, sculptural decorations, and decorative details, were transferred to newly built Muslim buildings.
In the XII-XIII centuries. The main types of Muslim religious buildings appeared in India - primarily mosques, minarets, madrassas, and mausoleums. The largest Muslim complex has been preserved in Delhi; it dates back to the beginning of the 13th century. The complex included a large mosque, a tomb, a madrasah, and a mausoleum. However, the biggest attraction of the ensemble was the gigantic Qutub Minar (1231), whose height exceeds seventy meters.
Islamic traditions can be traced in the main types of architectural structures of the early Islamic period, but in the details of cult
The influence of Indian architecture is clearly visible in the buildings. The entrance gates to Islamic structures resemble the entrances to rock-cut temples in India. Both the columns and the details of architectural decorations with an abundance of plant and floral patterns are borrowed from Buddhist and Hindu buildings. Minarets, so familiar in the religious architecture of Arab countries, are often found in mosques in India.
Minaret Qutub Minar. 1231
Delhi. India.
Jami Masjid Mosque,
First third XV V.
Delhi. India.
then absent. Another important feature of the architecture of the Islamic period is its organic integration into the surrounding nature. This quality has been inherent in Indian architectural and sculptural ensembles since ancient times.
Among the cities in which examples of early Islamic architecture have been preserved, Ahmedabad stands out. Many beautiful mosques and madrassas were built here: for example, the Jami Masjid mosque (the first third of the 15th century), the Rani Separi mosque (the beginning of the 16th century) - the pearl of early Islamic architecture, the Ahmad Shah mosque (the beginning of the 15th century). These buildings harmoniously combined the artistic traditions of two different cultures - Muslim and Indian.
THE GREAT MUGHAL EMPIRE
The Mughal dynasty traces its origins to Timur of Samarkand. Ruler Akbar (1556-1605) strengthened the power of this family in India and created a centralized state throughout its entire territory. He went down in history not only as a talented organizer and visionary politician, but also as a subtle connoisseur and patron of art. Many Indian architects and artists found work at the ruler's court. Akbar sought to unite India, and this increased the influence of Indian art on Muslim art. Gradually, the restraint and simplicity of the forms of buildings disappeared, the architecture and its decoration became more complex.
An example of this style is Akbar’s mausoleum in Sikandra (early 17th century), located near Agra, the capital of the Mughals. The ensemble is located in a garden surrounded by a fence with a large gate. The main building has three floors with pointed arches. The third floor is an open
Fathpur Sikri. XVII V. India.
The terrace is without covering, but in its corners there are four small domes, each of which is supported by four slender columns. In the courtyard, paved with marble mosaics, there is another small terrace - on it stands Akbar's sarcophagus, made of white marble.
Not far from Sikandra, on the orders of Akbar, the city of Fathpur Sikri was built, which served as the ruler’s residence. It contained buildings for various purposes: a palace, an audience hall, a throne room, pavilions and, finally, a cathedral mosque with three domes, in the huge courtyard of which there were two mausoleums. White and colored marble, as in Akbar's tomb, was used to decorate this unique residences.
Under Shah Jahan (1627-1658), one of Akbar's successors, architects again turned to the forms of Islamic architecture, which led to the emergence of a distinctive Mughal state style, a typical example of which is the Jami Mazda Mosque in Delhi.
An outstanding architectural monument of India is the Taj Mahal mausoleum in Agra (mid-17th century). It was built by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal is located in a large park, with roads and a canal leading to the mausoleum.
*Babur Zahireddin Muhammad - founder of the Mughal state, descendant of Timur. In 1526-1527 conquered most of northern India.
Taj Mahal. Middle XVII V. Agra. India.
The structure is elevated on a platform separating it from the ground. The building, polygonal in plan, is cut through with deep niches and topped with a huge spherical dome.
At the corners of the platform there are four tall slender towers, reminiscent of minarets. The fantastic architectural image of the Taj Mahal puts it on par
Feeding an elephant. Book miniature. Mughal school. Around 1620 India.
Miniature. Pahari School. End XVIII V.
National Museum, Delhi. India.
with the best monuments of medieval India.
During the Mughal era, Indian miniature painting reached its peak. It is represented by three main art schools: the Mughal court, Rajasthan and Pahari. The style of miniatures of the Mughal school was largely determined by the peculiarities of life at Akbar's court. Artists from different cities and countries, including European ones, gathered here. Illustrations were created for the Indian epics “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, and the ancient Indian collection of fairy tales “Panchatantra”. Portraits of historical figures occupied an important place in court painting. A separate group consisted of illustrations for biographical and historical chronicles of that time: “Babur-name”, “Akbar-name”, “Shah-Jahan-name”. The style of most court miniatures resembled Persian examples. The artist applied the drawing easily, clearly, trying not to miss a single, even the smallest, but “precious” detail. Moreover, each element of the picture, surrounded by a thin, clear outline, had its own color scheme. This gave the miniature a special sophistication.
In two other schools of Indian painting, in Rajasthan and Pahari, which arose somewhat later, the main role was played by subjects from the legends of Krishna. Artists of traditional Indian schools of painting illustrated the poems “Gitagovinda” and “Bhagavatpurapa” - classic texts of the cult of Krishna. A whole series of paintings presented illustrations for the months of the year, associated with a certain mood of a person, this or that music. Such miniatures again spoke of the indissoluble connection of all living things, of the unity of nature and man - the main thing that Indian art has always affirmed.
The period of Islamic art in India, with its unique examples of artistic creativity, which combined two traditions - Muslim and Indian, shows how two different cultures can coexist on the same territory, within the framework of one work of art. This era culminated the progressive development of Indian culture: in the 18th century. it was interrupted by the invasion of Western European civilization.
Emperor Akbar watches the capture of a wild elephant. Miniature from the book “Akbar-name”. Mughal school. 1564 Victoria and Albert Museum, London. England.
*Krishna is one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu. He is often represented as a young shepherd playing the flute.
ART OF SRI LANKA
India has had a huge influence on the development of its island neighbor - Sri Lanka (Ceylon). In the V-II centuries. BC e. immigrants from India - the Sinhalese and Tamil tribes - created the first states on the island. Since the embassy sent to the island by the Indian king Ashoka (III century BC), Buddhism began to spread here, which to this day remains the main religion of Sri Lanka. Traditionally, the art of Sri Lanka is divided into several periods in accordance with the names of the capitals of the island: 1) the period of Anuradhapura (III century BC - 10th century AD); 2) the period of Polonnaruwa (XI-XIV centuries); 3) Kandy period (XIV-XIX centuries).
The oldest monuments of art on the island are huge Buddhist stupas - yes"gobs. Unlike the Indian stupa, the dagoba does not have a fence with a gate; vakhalkadas - small cubic-shaped structures - are attached to it on four sides. They contain a kind of “false doors” - passages symbolizing the gates to the Universe. Each vakhalkada is decorated with a stele with reliefs. The location of the vakhalkadas is also connected with the life of Buddha: the eastern one symbolizes his birth, the southern one - enlightenment, the western one - the spread of Buddhism, the northern one - nirvana. As in India, floral ornaments and images of sacred animals were an indispensable sculptural addition to the stupa-dagoba. In the 3rd century. BC e. giant spherical or bell-shaped dagobas made of brick were erected, such as Thuparama, Mahathupa, Abhayagiri.
In addition to dagobas, another type of stupa arose on the island - a relatively small one, installed on a platform, to which from four
There are stairs on both sides. A characteristic design detail of such stupas is the so-called Moon Stone, located in front of the stairs. The Moonstone is a semicircle, decorated with stripes of reliefs that are located around the lotus leaf. Such a stupa, called chetiya-ghara, was an object of worship as a reminder of the Buddha's nirvana. Pilgrims and monks also found protection from bad weather in it. An example of such a building is the chetiya ghara in Medirigiri near Polonnaruwa (7th century).
Bodhi ghara and asana ghara are two other types of Buddhist architecture in Sri Lanka. Bodhi Ghara is a structure built around the Bo tree, a symbol of the Teacher’s enlightenment. An empty throne was revered in the asana-ghara - a symbol of the Buddha's first sermon. These Buddhist symbols played a very important role in the art of India, but only in Sri Lanka were they embodied in architecture.
At the end of the Anuradhapura period, a new type of structure arose - the so-called Statue House, which was intended for sculptural images of Buddha. The houses of the Statue cannot be considered temples; rather, they are places where believers did not pray, but reflected on Buddhist teachings.
In Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, the remains of secular buildings have been preserved - mainly the palaces of the rulers of the island.
Sri Lankan sculpture, like architecture, developed under the influence of Buddhism. Seated, standing and reclining Buddha are the main motifs of Sri Lankan sculpture. Among such images is a statue of a reclining Buddha from Polonnaruwa (12th century), located in front of the entrance to the vihara (dormitory of Buddhist monks). This is a huge statue (more than fifteen meters in length), next to which there is a statue of the standing disciple of Buddha - Ananda.
The influence of Indian art can be seen in the most grandiose ensemble of the island. This is the royal residence of Sigiriya (or Sihagiri, meaning Lion Rock). One of the kings of Sri Lanka turned the rock into a majestic structure - a huge sitting lion rested its powerful front paws on the plain. It was not by chance that the image of a lion was used in the complex. The lion in the art of India and Southeast Asia symbolized royal power, and in Buddhism - the Buddha himself. In Sigiriya, a ceremonial entrance has been preserved, leading to the rock terraces of the palace, on which small gardens were once laid out. Now there are the remains of the royal palace.
Sigiriya is widely known for its painting. The surface of the rock is decorated with magnificent paintings - figures of heavenly dancers. The dancers' poses are light and free, the movements of the arms, the tilts of the body and head are graceful and natural. The bright floral ornament gives the images even more airiness and elegance. The Sigiriya complex, like many examples of Sri Lankan architecture and sculpture, is a unique, original and distinctive ensemble that has influenced the art of Southeast Asia.
Statues of Buddha and Ananda. XII V. Polonnaruwa. Sri Lanka.
Paintings of Sigiriya. VI V. Sri Lanka.
The history of sculpture and painting in India is, in a sense, the history of great religious systems: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism. Since ancient times, the ultimate goal of the artist and sculptor has been to reveal to believers the truths of their religion. In this didactic function of Indian art one can see a close parallel to the traditional art of medieval Europe. In India there has never been anything analogous to the modern judgment of a work of art based on its aesthetic appeal. An Indian work of art was judged to be good only to the extent that it adequately fulfilled the function of a material symbol of the deity, and only if its execution was in accordance with the traditions of craftsmanship and canonical prescriptions.
Indus Valley Civilization(33002000 BC). This period, also called the Indo-Sumerian, is associated with the first great civilization that flourished in India in 3 thousand BC. Its main centers are Mohenjo-Daro in the lower reaches of the Indus and Harappa in Punjab (now both sites are located in Pakistan). Among the works of sculpture found during the excavations of these centers, one can distinguish those that show a close resemblance to the art of Mesopotamia, and those that are completely Indian in design. For example, on faience seals, found in huge quantities, many elements of Mesopotamian iconography are noticeable, while on carved amulets, figurines of animals, such as zebu or elephant, are completely Indian in the way they convey the most important features of the appearance of these animals - generalized images of this biological species.
Mauryan period(320185 BC).From the Indus Valley Civilization in 2000 BC. and until the founding of the Mauryan dynasty in 320 BC. no works of sculpture or painting have survived, with the exception of a few small objects made of terracotta and metal. Most of the monuments of the Mauryan period relate to Buddhist art; Under King Ashoka, Buddhism first received real political recognition. as in the period of the Indus Valley Civilization, the sculpture of this time can be divided into works dependent on foreign models and original Indian ones. Among the first are sandstone pillars or columns (many over 15 m high) that Ashoka installed at various places associated with the earthly life of the Buddha. Of these memorial pillars, one fragment is best preserved - the capital of a column that formerly stood in Sarnath, near Varanasi, the so-called. Lion capital (c. 243 BC). Its form and the clear heraldic nature of the carving have little in common with Indian art and are perceived as a direct continuation of the style of sculpture of the Iranian Achaemenid Empire.
Completely different from official art are examples of monumental sculpture of a purely Indian style, for example, the colossal statue of a yakshini (spirit of nature) from Parham. Such features as the colossal scale of the figure and the transmission of the bodily principle through the elastic, as if pneumatic tension of the surface, are exclusively Indian.
The period of the Sangas ("literary societies") and the early period of the Andhra state(c. 18525 BC). The main monuments of early Buddhist sculpture include the decorative frame of the gates and fences of Buddhist reliquaries - stupas in Bharhut and Sanchi. In Bharhut (2nd century BC), this frame includes images of nature spirits, who entered the ancient Indian pantheon in much the same way as pagan deities were assimilated into Christian art. The carved medallions on the crossbars and pillars of the stone fence are dominated by legends about previous incarnations of the Buddha. Both the very design of this sacred enclosure and the carving technique of the reliefs decorating it clearly indicate a repetition in stone of earlier prototypes in wood or ivory. The monumental enclosure of the stupa in Sanchi (1st century BC) is completely smooth, but the surface of the pillars and crossbars of the toran (gate) is completely covered with reliefs depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha and his previous incarnations. In the figures of yakshins, tree goddesses, decorating the finials of the gates, the sculptor expressed the energy of sensuality in the language of almost abstract stone carvings, conveying the rounded shapes of the body.
In earlier Buddhist art, the presence of the Buddha was indicated only by symbols, since it was believed that he, having crossed the brink of material existence and achieved nirvana, could not be represented in human form. The narrative compositions in Sanchi are made with in-depth carvings, creating an amazing pattern of combinations of light and shadow; these compositions form long rows, representing a rather archaic method of continuous storytelling.
Kushan period: Gandhara and Mathura(50450).The name of the period Kushan comes from the name of the people of Scythian origin who overthrew the last of the successors of Alexander the Great in Afghanistan and the Parthian satraps who ruled in northwestern India and the Punjab. In the northern province of the Kushan kingdom, Gandhara, which was previously part of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250-140 BC), in the first centuries AD. The so-called Greco-Buddhist art developed, which was a combination of Hellenistic forms, types and techniques borrowed from the eastern part of the Roman Empire, and Indian Buddhist iconography. The appearance in Gandhara of gray slate statues, which for the first time depicted Buddha in human form, should probably be explained by the influence of the anthropomorphic tradition of the Greco-Roman world. The way of depicting individual episodes from the life of the hero, combined into cycles of narrative compositions, the technique of deep relief and the abundance of decorative details indicate the closeness of Gandhara sculpture to the provincial schools of art of the Roman Empire. The special significance of Gandhara art lies in the “invention” of the image of Buddha and the creation of a stable iconography of scenes from his life.
In the southern capital of the Kushan kingdom, Mathura, due to its proximity to the ancient primordial centers of art, authentic Indian features predominated in the style of sculpture. The first actual Indian Buddha statues appeared in the 2nd century. AD; they were carved from the red sandstone characteristic of this region. The colossal scale of the statues, the rounded and energetic forms, the powerful sense of texture of the human body and sculptural mass all these features reaffirm stylistic and iconographic traditions dating back to the Mauryan period. The primordial Indian tradition also includes the provocatively sensual figures of the Yakshins that adorned the fence of the stupa in Mathura.
Late Andhra State Period(approx. 150300). In southern India, in the last centuries of the existence of the Andhra state, the flourishing of Buddhist culture was observed in the area of the Kistna River. The poorly preserved limestone reliefs that once adorned the stupa at Amaravati represent a style that, in its abundance of detail and vivid narrative treatment of the images, is only a more refined development of the technique of carved reliefs from Sanchi of the early Andhra period. The figures are full of refined elegance and languor, endowed with sensual charm, expressing the almost complete Indian ideal of beauty of the human body.
Gupta State Period(320600). It was the Gupta period, the time of the final political unification of India, that was also the time of unification of style and iconography in art. The former Kushan capital at Mathura remained a center of Buddhist sculpture. In images of the 4th-5th centuries. the massive proportions and physicality of the early Kushan statues are combined with the Hellenistic draperies of the Gandhara school, which have become traditional, now likened to a pattern of loops, as if stuck to the body. The greatest masterpieces of this period are the Buddha statues carved at Sarnath (5th century). In them, draperies become a light, tight-fitting cover that fully reveals the outlines of the body. The high degree of precision of the carving and the almost abstract interpretation of the cylindrical shape of the torso and limbs emphasize the plasticity of the form. In this complete perfection of the religious image there is nothing from the reproduction of the human body from life; the sculptor drew inspiration from the very precise systems of proportions prescribed for the creation of sacred images. In the same way, the individual features of the statue are not an imitation of the corresponding parts of the human body, but are, as it were, transferred to the statue from the most perfect and complete forms of the animal or plant world, which were considered more adequate for depicting a supernatural being. According to this system, the eyes are given the shape of a lotus petal, the head takes on the perfect oval shape of an egg, the limbs are tapered like the trunk of an elephant, etc. The reliefs of the Gupta period in Mathura and Sarnath generally follow the iconography established in Greco-Buddhist art, but among them there are also purely Indian images.
Middle Ages(6001200). Buddhist sculpture 7th-11th centuries. known primarily from the cult images of the later esoteric sects that flourished in the Bengal Valley. The statues, carved from blue-black sandstone, are stereotypical and mannered renditions of the Gupta era ideal and are characterized by an abundance of carefully crafted detail; however, these works are completely devoid of the spirituality that transforms the masterpieces of Gupta sculpture.
The largest centers of Hindu art in the Middle Ages were in central and southern India. During the Pallava dynasty, which came to power in the 6th century, a gigantic relief was made Descent of the Ganges River to Earth in Mahabalipuram (7th century), with many life-size figures, completely covering a huge boulder on the seashore. This composition, not limited by any frame, evokes associations with Baroque sculpture; it seems that all forms arise from the rocky mass, just as all sentient beings, according to the Indians, appear from the universal substance of the Maya. The sophistication and languid grace of the figures are a direct continuation of the canons of the late Andhra period school. This style of dynamic baroque sculpture spread throughout India and reappeared in the reliefs of the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora (mid-8th century) and in one of the last masterpieces of Hindu rock sculpture, the high relief depiction of the great Trimurti in the cave temple on Elephanta Island near Bombay. The most significant achievement of Hindu sculpture at the last stage of its development, in the 13th-17th centuries, should be considered copper figurines from southern India. The best of them are the Nataraja figurines, i.e. Shiva “God of Dance”, in which the endless destruction and re-creation of the world is embodied in plastic form. This abstract representation of the divine form reminds us that for the Indian the image of the deity was only a diagram or symbol that helped the believer to achieve inner union with the supernatural prototype.
INDIAN PAINTING The history of painting in India, as far as one can judge from references to it in written sources, dates back at least to the Mauryan period. During the Gupta period, painting was practiced by princes and nobility, as well as guilds of artists who worked to satisfy the needs of the cults of Buddhism and Hinduism. Indian painting was subject to the same set of regulations as sculpture.
The earliest surviving works of Indian painting, dating back to the 1st or 2nd centuries. BC, murals of the famous Buddhist temples of Ajanta in Hyderabad. Individual compositions form long friezes; like the Sanchi reliefs, the method of continuous storytelling is used here. Like other forms of Indian art and dance, painting depicts action through gesture rather than facial expressions. The Ajanta caves also contain paintings from the Gupta period, but the most famous are those from the 7th century. in Cave 1. As in early medieval sculpture, the composition of these paintings is not limited by any frames; they completely cover the entire wall. In individual images, the same combination of the sensual and abstract is manifested as in the masterpieces of sculpture of the early Gupta period and the Middle Ages. Late medieval painting can be judged mainly from illustrations of Jain manuscripts and the rather mannered works of the Gujarat miniature school of the 15th century. the last flowering of Indian painting - miniatures of the Rajput school of the 16th - early 19th centuries, among which illustrations for works of Hindu literature occupied an important place. These compositions evoke the splendor of ancient wall paintings; the true poetry of the narrative and drawing is echoed in the enamel purity of the colors.
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Fine arts of India. (KRISHNA.)Considering the works of fine art of Asian antiquity, we often come across the names of great masters, especially in the art of China and Japan. However, it is unlikely that many art lovers will be able to name the outstanding names of Indian sculptors or artists. Indian fine art is anonymous, and this is one of its most important distinguishing features. And this anonymity is manifested not only in the absence of the names of the authors who created the painting, but often in the partial anonymity of the images themselves. An Indian artist would rather create an image of a deity than a specific king or nobleman. Everyday scenes of everyday life included generalized images and cannot claim portrait resemblance, like any other image in Indian art.
The Indian master never created his works from life, be it an image of a person, a sacred tree or any animal. The Indian master worked from memory, adding to his creativity, in addition to direct perception of nature, his own vision, as well as following the canons. The canons develop in detail the rules for depicting poses (asanas) and positions of the hands and fingers (mudras). Indian works, if they were not images of gods, were always a subjective reflection of objective reality.
Emotion (race) was important in the images. Eight emotions were considered basic: love, exalted spiritual state, joy, surprise, sadness as compassion, peace and discontent. All folk stories depicted the joy of being, which manifested itself through emotions - rasa, they were considered a manifestation of Brahman in a person.
The culture of Ancient India began to take shape already in the 3rd millennium BC, during the period of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of class society. The art of Ancient India in its development was connected with other artistic cultures of the Ancient world: from Sumer to China. In the fine arts and architecture of India (especially in the first centuries AD), features of connection with the art of Ancient Greece, as well as with the art of Central Asian countries, appeared; The first works of Indian art known to us date back to the Neolithic period. Society of this time was at the level of early class relations. The discovered monuments indicate the development of handicraft production, the presence of writing, as well as trade relations with other countries.
The ceramic products found in Mohenjo-Daro are very diverse. Shiny polished vessels were covered with ornaments that combined animal and plant motifs: conventionally executed images of birds, fish, snakes, goats and antelopes among plants. Usually the painting was done with black paint on a red background. Multi-colored ceramics were less common.
The villages of Indian tribes consisted of wooden buildings that were round in plan with a hemispherical roof and were planned like the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa; their streets intersected at right angles and were oriented along the four cardinal points.
Works of fine art from the end of the 2nd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. not preserved. But a fairly complete picture of the art of Ancient India is given by monuments starting from the period of the Maurya dynasty (322 - 185 BC). The wooden buildings of the rulers were distinguished by great splendor. The palace of King Ashoka, the most powerful of the rulers of the Maurya dynasty, was located in the capital of Magadha, Pataliputra, and was a wooden building of several floors, standing on a stone foundation and having 80 sandstone columns. The palace was richly decorated with sculpture and carvings. On three floors, one above the other, there were huge halls, lavishly decorated with paintings, precious stones, gold and silver images of plants and animals, etc. A long row of keeled arches stretched along the facade, alternating with balconies on pillars Gardens with fountains and pools descended in terraces from the palace to the Ganges.
The emergence of Buddhism led to the emergence of stone religious buildings that served to promote its ideas. One of the main types of Buddhist religious monuments were stupas . The ancient stupas were hemispherical structures made of brick and stone, devoid of internal space, in appearance dating back to the most ancient burial hills.
The second type of monumental religious buildings were stambhas - monolithic stone pillars, usually completed with a capital topped with a sculpture. Edicts and Buddhist religious and moral injunctions were carved on the pillar. The top of the pillar was decorated with a lotus-shaped capital bearing sculptures of symbolic sacred animals. Such pillars of earlier periods are known from ancient images on seals. The pillars erected under Ashoka are decorated with Buddhist symbols and, according to their purpose, should fulfill the task of glorifying the state and promoting the ideas of Buddhism
During the reign of Ashoka, the construction of Buddhist cave temples began. Buddhist temples and monasteries were carved directly into rock masses and sometimes represented large temple complexes. The austere, majestic premises of the temples, usually divided by two rows of columns into three naves, were decorated with round sculpture, stone carvings and paintings. Inside the temple there was a stupa located in the depths of the chaitya, opposite the entrance.
The Buddhist subjects of Gandhara sculptures and sculptural reliefs that decorated the walls of monasteries and temples are very diverse and occupy a special place in Indian art. Iconographic features, compositional techniques and images developed in Gandhara, which later became widespread in the countries of the Far East and Central Asia.
The image of Buddha in the form of a man (3rd-1st centuries BC) was new, which had not been seen before in the art of India.
Among the monuments of the Kushan period, a special place belongs to portrait statues, in particular sculptures of rulers. Statues of rulers were often placed outside architectural structures, as free-standing monuments. These statues recreate the characteristic features of their appearance and accurately reproduce all the details of their clothing. The heroes of the ancient Indian epic, as before, occupy a significant place. But, as a rule, they are endowed with other features. Their images are more sublime; their figures are distinguished by harmony and clarity of proportions.
In the architecture of India, dating back to the 1st - 3rd centuries. AD, changes occur towards more decorative forms. Brick becomes the building material. The stupa takes on a more elongated shape, losing its former monumentality.
A special type of brick tower-shaped temple also appears in northern India. An example of this type of building is a temple Mahabodhi in Bodh Gaya or the Temple of the “Great Enlightenment” (built around the 5th century and later heavily rebuilt), dedicated to Buddha and representing a peculiar reworking of the form
The desire for exuberant luxury and sophistication appears in the fine arts. Official religious requirements and strict canons have already left the mark of abstract idealization and convention on it, especially in the sculptural images of Buddha. Such, for example, is a statue from the museum in Sarnath (5th century AD), distinguished by virtuosity in stone processing and frozen ideal beauty. The Buddha is depicted sitting with his hand raised upward in a ritual gesture of instruction - “mudra”. On his face with heavy eyelids lowered down is a thin, impassive smile. A large openwork halo, supported on both sides by perfume, frames his head. The pedestal depicts Buddha's followers flanking the symbolic wheel of the law. The image of Buddha is subtle and cold, it does not have that living warmth that is generally characteristic of the art of Ancient India. The Sarnath Buddha is very different from the Gandharan images in that it is more abstract and dispassionate.
The conventionality of the image is manifested in the fact that the figure of Buddha - the “Great Teacher” - is shown to be huge in comparison with the figures of his wife and son, who are depicted in front of him as small, simple people looking up at him. This painting is characterized by simplicity, harmony and calm clarity. The figures of the wife and son are filled with direct human experience and spiritual warmth. There are other genre images in this temple. This is a series of everyday and mythological scenes. Eight paintings located near the central door show people in their home life. One of these paintings depicts a young boy and girl sitting on the floor. A young man brings a flower to a girl. The naked bodies of both are unusually plastic and voluminous. The artist convincingly showed the physical beauty of the elastic, full of strength and soft harmony of the human body and the gentle and lively expressions of faces.
Characteristic features of the entire ancient period of Indian art are the strength and stability of folk traditions, which always break through numerous religious layers both in the choice of subjects and in the content of many artistic images. In architecture, the basic elements of wooden folk architecture dating back to ancient times have been firmly preserved for a long time. In sculpture and painting, based on folk fantasy, humanized images of gods and heroes are created, full of charm, harmony and beauty, which have become traditional.
In the ancient art of India it is already possible to trace the division of art into a more official direction, subject to canonical rules, acquiring over time features of dryness and rigidity, and a realistic direction, genre-based in its aspirations, distinguished by humanity and vitality. This second direction received its most vivid expression in the Ajanta paintings.