Game mammals. Game and game mammals Describe the most important domestic and game mammals

Test yourself

1. What skeletal structure is typical for mammals?
2. What are the differences in the structure of the skin of mammals and reptiles. What is the importance of hair in the life of animals?
3. What muscles are well developed in dogs and cats? Why?
4. What are the differences in the structure of the digestive, respiratory, circulatory and nervous systems of mammals and reptiles?
5. What stages of development does a mammalian embryo go through? What does this prove?
6. Name the factors that influence the mammalian embryo when it is in the uterus. Why is viviparity the most progressive method of reproduction?
7. What is the evidence for the origin of mammals from ancient reptiles?
8. Name the habitats of mammals. What are the most characteristic features of animal organization associated with each of these environments?
9. Describe the most important domestic and commercial mammals. What significance do they have for a person?
10. Name rare and endangered species of mammals and measures for their protection.

Which statements are true?

1. Mammals are the highest warm-blooded vertebrates that give birth to live young and feed them with milk.
2. The external structure of mammals does not depend on their habitat.
3. The skin of mammals is elastic, durable, and has hair.
4. The brain part of the skull of mammals is larger than that of reptiles, which is associated with enlargement of the brain.
5. The clavicles are developed in animals that perform a variety of movements with their forelimbs (primates), and are absent or underdeveloped in those that move their limbs in the same plane (for example, ungulates and carnivores).
6. The number of convolutions in the cerebral cortex of all mammals is approximately the same.
7. Caring for offspring is especially pronounced in animals that give birth to helpless young (for example, squirrels, rabbits).
8. The life of mammals does not depend on the seasons of the year.

Practical tasks

Try to make the following observations yourself.

1. Examine the fur of a dog or cat, moving it apart. Mark guard hairs and down hairs. Touch the vibrissae. What can you say about their toughness? Observe the cat's movements during the hunt and the dog's reaction when following commands.
2. Outside the city, observe how cows and horses behave at different times of the day. Notice how they eat grass, hay, and chew their food. Find out what breeds of these animals are kept in the nearest livestock farms.
3. Observe how a cow, cat, dog behave when they have cubs. Monitor the behavior of the cubs and the reaction of the female in case of danger.

Russian people have long decorated their homes with various crafts and homemade things. Craftsmen most often made their products not just for beauty; all things had their own practical purpose. Real works of art were made from natural materials - wood, clay and stone. Skills, manufacturing technologies and secret techniques were passed down from generation to generation. From this article you will learn which folk craft of Central Russia was the most popular.

How did folk crafts originate?

Various crafts began to appear in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is this period that is associated with the emergence of folk crafts. Somewhat later, in the 17th century, craftsmen began to create crafts specifically for sale. Entire villages and settlements worked on the production of folk crafts.

Why did the folk craft of Central Russia begin to develop? The reason is banal - cold and hunger. During the long, cold winter, people needed something to feed their families. Poor soils did not produce enough crops and there was not enough to live on, so the craftsmen sold their products and lived on the proceeds. Of course, Russian folk crafts arose where there was a sufficient amount of natural raw materials. Wooden crafts were made in forest areas where rocky soils predominated, stone products, etc. became widespread. As you know, demand creates supply, and folk crafts developed where they were needed.

Folk arts and crafts began to appear a little later - in the middle of the 19th century. In those days, the famous gold thread embroidery, painting and metal processing appeared. The church, namely local schools of icon painting, had a huge influence on the emergence of this craft. They carried out embroidery orders for monasteries and churches.

Folk craft of Central Russia

Russian crafts are famous not only in our country; folk crafts have gained worldwide fame. The list of handmade products could be very long, but let’s talk about the main ones:

• Gzhel.
• Dymkovo toy.
• Khokhloma.
• Palekh.
• Rostov enamel.
• and etc.

Dymkovo toy

Many centuries ago, a city was formed on the banks of the Vyatka River, in which a settlement was organized. Every morning the locals lit the stoves, and because of the constantly rising smoke, the settlement was nicknamed Dymkovskaya Sloboda.

Pottery masters lived there. They made dishes and pipes from clay, which were subsequently heated in a furnace. Whistles were made mainly in the form of animals. But this was not done only for the entertainment of children. The Vyatka people met the sun god, Yarilo, to the sound of pipes. The Dymkovo toy is the most famous folk craft of Central Russia. Everyone knows what she looks like. This is a clay Russian woman with a bright apron and black eyebrows. The beauty's dress is painted with various patterns. The main rule is that it should be bright and colorful.

Gzhel

It is difficult to imagine folk arts and crafts without Gzhel. Previously, this name was borne by a village located 50 kilometers from Moscow. Craftsmen lived there and began to create highly artistic porcelain products. They were painted with cobalt. Later, semi-faience dishes also appeared. The masters collected hundreds of different images; many samples are now kept in the Hermitage. The Gzhel people have long transported surplus dishes to Moscow markets; craftsmen often painted dishes to order. Today it is very difficult to imagine folk crafts without Gzhel products.

Palekh

The development of folk crafts dates back to the 13th-14th centuries. At this time, the modern center of Russian culture was formed - the village of Palekh. Then it belonged to Prince Paletsky, later Ivan Buturlin became its owner. A large number of icon painting workshops were created in the village. In the 20th century, craftsmen in the village were engaged in painting brooches, snuff boxes, cigarette cases, notebooks and beads. Many people know the famous Palekhov boxes and Easter eggs. A little later, the use of black varnish and papier-mâché began to emerge in the village.

Khokhloma

The Khokhloma fishery appeared in Russia in the Trans-Volga forests on the Uzol River. Villages were formed there - Semino, Khryashi, Novopokrovskoye and Kuligino. It was there that Khokhloma originated. Unfortunately, the folk crafts of the region have not been fully preserved to this day. We know the works of masters only from the 19th century, although it has been proven that this craft was practiced in the 17th century.

Khokhloma differs from others in its special painting technology. A distinctive feature is the application of black paint and cinnabar on a gold background. To gild the dishes, craftsmen rubbed them with tin powder, after which they applied a layer of drying oil and placed them in the oven. Due to the high temperature, the drying oil turned yellow, and the tin seemed golden. Craftsmen applied patterns and ornaments by hand with a brush. Expensive sets were drawn especially carefully. Today Khokhloma dishes can be seen at various international exhibitions and fairs.

Shawls of Pavlovsky Posad

Pavlovsky Posad is known to many because of the appearance of patterned scarves and shawls there. For the first time such an elegant piece of clothing was made in the city of Pavlov. Hence the name.

At local fairs, which were often held in central squares, patterned shawls sold with a bang. There you could buy colored scarves with a variety of patterns - wildflowers, roses, bouquets and leaves. Scarves are often called printed scarves. Shawls began to be called this word because of the method of applying a pattern to the fabric - heeling. The master laid the fabric on a board and beat it so that the paint would print better. Not every craftsman has mastered the technology of hand-printing. Modern scarves are made using special printing machines.

Rostov enamel

The centers of folk crafts of Central Russia include famous cities and villages, Rostov is one of them. In the 18th century, the craft of enamel was born. This is painting on enameled metal with special paints. In ancient times, masters painted icons. The priests wore robes with enamel decorations. and the covers of handwritten books were also painted with special fireproof paints. A special feature of this application technology is that before firing, the color of the patterns is always the same. Thanks to the heat of the oven, the products begin to play with bright colors.

Zhostovo

Many people are familiar with painted trays from Zhostovo. This village is located not far from the capital, it was there that local painters created such a work of art as the Masters painted wild and garden flowers on a black background, three horses, still lifes, etc. The first tray was made of papier-mâché.

Also, painters from Zhostovo painted boxes, snuff boxes and caskets. In the mid-19th century, metal trays began to be produced, and papier-mâché products faded into the background. The most famous piece of art in Zhostovo is an oval tray painted around the perimeter. Each workshop puts a mark on its product, by which you can identify the master who made this beauty.

Modern crafts of Russia

Modern folk crafts are actively developing. Today at exhibitions and fairs you can see a wide variety of products, crafts and paintings. The directions of contemporary art are very different, these include:

• visualization using light bulbs;
• electronic compositions;
• photograph;
• flash mobs;
• sculptures and installations, etc.

Modern folk craft can hardly be called unified; talented craftsmen do what they do well. If several centuries ago you could only draw or sculpt from clay, now there are much more opportunities to express yourself. But, despite this, the basics of painting and painting are studied precisely from the products of ancient, distinctive Russia. The traditions of Russian craftsmen still live in many cities.

In conclusion, I would like to list the remaining areas of folk art that were not discussed in this article:

• Fedoksa miniature;
• Orenburg down scarves;
• Vologda and Yelets lace;
• matryoshka;
• Karpogol, Abashevskaya and Filimonskaya toys;
• filigree;
• Kasli casting.

The traditions of our miracle workers, painters and craftsmen continue to live in the modern world. Despite scientific and technological progress, ancient Russian folk crafts continue to develop. Works of art that have survived to this day can be seen in museums and exhibitions; you can try yourself in this difficult task at art schools and development centers.

Folk crafts have reached us from ancient times - painting, carving, lace, but there are also new folk crafts. Most often they began with peasant household art.

Art painting in Russia

Wooden and metal products, children's toys and furniture have been painted in Rus' from time immemorial. Technology in different regions of the country differed significantly from each other. Further details about the most famous types of painting.

Gorodets painting

Gorodets painting originated in the Volga region, in the villages of the Nizhny Novgorod province. They were located near a large village called Gorodets. There were fairs where crafts made by craftsmen were sold. This is where the name came from - Gorodets painting.

Polkhov-Maidan painting

The birthplace of Polkhov-Maidan painting is the south of the Nizhny Novgorod region. There, in the village of Polkhovsky Maidan, the village of Voznesenskoye and the village of Krutets, the center of this painting is located. It arose only a hundred years ago on the basis of the turning industry developed in those places. Masters painted nesting dolls, children's toys, mushrooms, Easter eggs, and used only four colors - green, blue, yellow and red.

Palekh painting

Palekh painting appeared quite recently - already in Soviet times, however, the roots of this painting go back to antiquity. Thanks to the unique craft, the village of Palekh, Ivanovo region, became known throughout Russia. It is known about Palekh painting, Palekh miniatures, Palekh icon painting. The peculiarity of painting is that artists create not just ornaments, but draw entire scenes and compositions with the smallest details.

Zhostovo painting

Zhostovo painting is lacquer painting on trays, which appeared in one thousand eight hundred and twenty-five. Such trays are made at a factory in the village of Zhostovo and in the city of Nizhny Tagil. The main difference of this craft is the abundance of colors, incomparable tones, and the realism of all elements.

Gzhel

Gzhel painting, as the name implies, originated in the city of Gzhel. Her patterns are predominantly floral patterns and simple geometric patterns, done in cobalt bright blue paint on a snow-white background. The city of Gzhel is a center for the production of ceramics. In many ways, this was the reason for the appearance of its unique painting in this city. Gzhel art craft is not young; its roots go back to the fourteenth century. It was then that the Kudinovskoye clay deposit was discovered.

Russian crafts that became trades

Sometimes Russian crafts became trades. They arose when folk craft products were put on stream. We know about making toys from clay, about special wood carvings, about lace craftsmanship, and so on.

Dymkovo toy

Near the city of Vyatka there was a settlement called Dymkovo, now it is one of the districts of the city. In the settlement of Dymkovo in the nineteenth century, painted ceramic toys for children appeared. Deposits of clay and sand in those places became the reason for the production of clay jugs and jars by craftsmen. Bright, cheerful toys were made for the children's amusement. Only women or children were involved in modeling and painting toys. The pattern on the Dymkovo toy is always geometric, consisting of circles, stripes, and cells. In addition to its unique painting, the toy stands out because it is trimmed with gold.

Filimonovskaya toy

The production of Filimonovo toys arose on the basis of the production of clay dishes located near the village of Filimonovo. These toys are a variety of whistles. A distinctive feature is the elongated shape of the products, which is due to the characteristics of the local clay. To this day, whistles are painted only with a quill pen.

Abramtsevo-Kudrinskaya carving

Carving, which became a trade, appeared in the Abramtsevo estate, near Moscow in the nineteenth century. Its name is Abramtsevo-Kudrinskaya carving. The carvers studied and worked in the carpentry workshop, where they were also taught painting and drawing. Thus, a small workshop became the basis for a future craft, distinguished by its unique carving style.

Vyatka lace

Vyatka lace has been known since the eighteenth century. In the second half of the nineteenth century, a zemstvo school of lacemakers was organized in the Vyatka province. For many years there was a lace factory in those places, but it was closed in the early nineties. Lacemakers have preserved their unique skills, traditions and craft technology. They delight with new products, uniting in artels or small enterprises.

New folk crafts

Not all folk crafts have a rich history. Some have appeared quite recently. What kind of crafts these are, we will find out later.

Painting Christmas tree decorations

Christmas tree painting as a craft originated in the nineteenth century in the village of Danilovo. The toys were also made there. Peasants did this at home, using simple burners for blowing. The demand for such toys grew, and the number of single craftsmen also increased. Soon, some home owners organized small productions with hired workers.

Factory "Ariel"

The oldest factory in Russia producing New Year's toys is the Ariel factory. It is located in Nizhny Novgorod. Despite fashion changing over the years, the factory does not change the tradition of making handmade toys. Next to the factory there is a museum of Christmas tree decorations and a store.

The most recognizable folk craft in Russia

Perhaps the most recognizable Russian folk craft is Khokhloma gold painting. It originated at the end of the seventeenth century in the Nizhny Novgorod region, when at fairs in the village of Khokhloma they sold wooden products painted by locals from the surrounding villages.

All items are elegant and colorful. A distinctive feature of the painting is the presence of a gold background or gold ornament. While painting, the masters come up with their drawings on the fly; this is always an improvisation when following the rules of Khokhloma painting. The master turns a simple wooden object into a work of folk art. Housewives still use such utensils. It is also exhibited in museums. There is a website about the largest museums in the world.
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The basis of the fur trade in Russia is squirrel, muskrat, sable, fox, arctic fox and hares. Squirrels are prized for their warm, light, and beautiful fur.

The best squirrel furs are supplied to the international market by Russia (our country has almost a monopoly regarding them). Good quality squirrel furs also come in large quantities from China and Mongolia. Throughout its extensive range, the squirrel forms many local forms, the quality of the fur of which generally increases from west to east. The skins of the very large, silver-gray teleduck (Sciurus vulgaris exalbidus), which inhabits the steppe forests along the upper reaches of the Ob and the middle Irtysh, and the dark gray Yakut squirrel (Sc. v. jacutensis), distinguished by its very lush and silky winter fur, are highly valued.

The sable, which at the beginning of this century was on the verge of complete destruction, thanks to protection and artificial resettlement during the Soviet period, by the end of the 40s had restored its numbers and occupied almost the entire former range. Dark in color with very delicate and thick fur, the sables of the Baikal region and southern Yakutia produce one of the most expensive skins in the world. But light, reddish West Siberian sables are valued no more than pine martens.

The fox is distributed throughout the Union and, in terms of the value of its fur, occupies one of the first places in the country's annual harvests, and in the steppe and forest-steppe regions it is a stable first place among all fur species. The best quality skins (large, fluffy, richly colored) come from the northern regions and especially from the northeast of Siberia. Foxes of semi-deserts and deserts are small, with coarse, relatively short sandy-gray fur.

The Arctic fox also occupies a prominent place in the country's fur industry, although it is hunted only in the tundra zone and the northern part of the taiga. Arctic fox fishing is of great importance in the economy of the population of the Far North.

The number of hares we hunt annually - hare, hare and tolai is very large, but cannot be accurately counted, since a significant part of the skins settles on the spot and is not harvested. Especially a lot of hare skins go to local needs in Yakutia, where the population uses them to make light, warm blankets and other things needed in everyday life during extremely frosty winters. Hares are hunted largely for their meat, but the wool from the skins that are harvested is used by industry to make felt. A lot of white hare are caught mainly in wire loops, which are placed on their paths when there is snow in the taiga.gets deep. In second place in the fishery in importance is the hare, and the tolai, a relatively small hare, is valuable because it provides good meat in the very poor lands of our semi-deserts and deserts.

Page 14

What was the basis of economic life in Russia at the beginning of the 16th century? In what areas of the Russian economy at the beginning of the 16th century? have there been any changes?

The basis of economic life in Russia at the beginning of the 16th century. there was agriculture. Serious changes in economic activity occurred in crafts and trade. A domestic market was being formed on the territory of the Russian state.

Page 14

Remember what territory the Moscow Principality occupied in the middle of the 15th century. List the main layers of the population of the Moscow Principality in the 15th century. and their activities.

In North-Eastern Rus', the process of gathering Russian lands was led by the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which emerged victorious in the fierce competition with the Grand Duchy of Tver and other neighboring principalities and became the basis of the centralized Russian state. Principality of Moscow in the middle of the 15th century. consisted of the principalities of Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Smolensk, Ryazan and other lands.

The main layers of the population of the Moscow Principality in the 15th century. and their activities:

At the top of the social ladder of the Russian principalities in the XIV-XV centuries. stood the boyars and free servants. They served their princes by voluntary agreement and could move from one prince to another. These boyars and free servants were, as a rule, landowners - “votchinniki”. They received “complaint” letters from the princes, according to which they themselves had to “know and judge” the population living in their estates; however, the right of the patrimonial court was usually limited by a very significant reservation: serious crimes - murder, robbery and red-handed theft - belonged to the court of the princely administration.

Princes in the XIV-XV centuries. had their own extensive and complex palace economy. All lands of the principality that did not belong by patrimonial right to boyars, free servants or church institutions were considered to belong to the prince.

The population of the palace estates are household servants, peasants and involuntary servants. Some of the “household servants” also performed military service for their prince.

Peasants in the XIV-XV centuries. lived or on the lands of private owners.

Posad people - the urban population, were engaged in crafts. The ministers of the church - the administration of religious services - owned lands (monasteries) and were also involved in farming.

Page 14

What is the slash-and-burn farming system?

Slash-and-burn agriculture (slash-and-burn agriculture) is a primitive farming system in the forest zone, in which agricultural plants were grown for several years in areas cleared from the forest by cutting it down and burning it, using the natural fertility of the soil. After the loss of fertility, the site was abandoned and a new one was developed. Slash-and-burn agriculture is characterized by relatively high field yields, but in a short period. The overall productivity of the land, however, remains low.

Page 15

Remember who the Cossacks are. How and when did the Cossacks arise?

The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in 948 mentioned the territory in the North Caucasus as the country of Kasakhia. Historians attached particular importance to this fact only after Captain A. G. Tumansky discovered the Persian geography “Gudud al Alem”, compiled in 982, in Bukhara in 1892. It turns out that there is also “Kasak Land”, which was located in the Azov region. It is interesting that the Arab historian, geographer and traveler Abul-Hasan Ali ibn al-Hussein (896–956), who received the nickname of the imam of all historians, reported in his writings that the Kasakis who lived beyond the Caucasus ridge were not highlanders. A meager description of a certain military people who lived in the Black Sea region and Transcaucasia is found in the geographical work of the Greek Strabo, who worked under the “living Christ.” He called them Kossakhs. Modern ethnographers provide data about the Scythians from the Turanian tribes of Kos-Saka, the first mention of which dates back to approximately 720 BC. It is believed that it was then that a detachment of these nomads made their way from Western Turkestan to the Black Sea lands, where they stopped. In addition to the Scythians, on the territory of the modern Cossacks, that is, between the Black and Azov Seas, as well as between the Don and Volga rivers, Sarmatian tribes ruled, who created the Alanian state. The Huns (Bulgars) defeated it and exterminated almost its entire population. The surviving Alans hid in the north - between the Don and Donets, and in the south - in the foothills of the Caucasus. Basically, it was these two ethnic groups - the Scythians and Alans, who intermarried with the Azov Slavs - who formed the nation called the Cossacks. This version is considered one of the basic ones in the discussion about where the Cossacks came from.

Page 17

What products of Western European artisans were called masterpieces?

A masterpiece in many cities of medieval and early capitalist Europe is the best example of a product made by an artisan (apprentice) at his own expense. Only after a craftsman had produced a masterpiece could he join a workshop, open his own workshop and become a master. The system of workshops with the presentation of a masterpiece (“approved sample of work”) existed in Russia since the time of Peter I and formally until 1900.

Page 19. Questions and tasks for working with the text of a paragraph

The transition to three-field farming is due to the fact that this method of farming gave stable, relatively high yields; there was no need to frequently change place of residence in search of new plots of land or clear them.

2. What grain crops were cultivated by Russian peasants at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries? Which one was the main one? Guess why.

Russian peasants at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries. They cultivated grain crops: wheat, barley, millet, rye, oats. Wheat was the main one, as it gave the largest harvest. But gradually wheat was replaced by rye, since in addition to its yield, rye was also less demanding to grow.

3. Describe the tools of labor of Russian peasants at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries. Why have they changed so little since the times of Ancient Rus'?

Tools of labor of Russian peasants at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries: plow, roe-plow, plow, harrow. They have changed so little since the times of Ancient Rus' because the development of agriculture was hampered by dependence on the Horde khans, the traditions of cultivating the land were passed down from generation to generation and changed very slowly, Russia existed separately from other European countries, where the tools for cultivating the land had already changed.

4. Why did livestock farming have only an auxiliary significance in the economy of the Russian peasant? What difficulties did the natural conditions create for the peasant for breeding and keeping livestock?

Livestock husbandry had only an auxiliary importance in the economy of the Russian peasant because caring for animals required effort and time, and the preparation of feed took up time during the harvest.

Natural conditions created certain difficulties for the peasant in raising and keeping livestock. The harsh and unstable climate with long, frosty winters and short summers was unfavorable for farming. Agricultural labor could only be done 130 days a year: plowing, sowing, growing and harvesting. Preparing food for pets at the same time also took time.

5. How do the following proverbs characterize the role of the community in the life of a peasant: “Even death is a blessing to the world,” “The world is a big man,” “The world is the head of everything”?

These sayings characterize the role of the community in the life of a peasant as the main, determining one. The community divided arable plots and vegetable gardens, controlled the use of hayfields, fishing grounds, lakes and rivers, and distributed state taxes and duties among peasant households.

6. Why during the 16th century. did the number of Cossacks increase? How could the state use the Cossacks in its interests?

During the 16th century. The number of Cossacks increased because the borders of the state expanded, and it was necessary to protect the borders from raids by the Crimean and Kazan Tatars. Thus, the state used the Cossacks to its advantage.

7. How did the importance of Russian cities change with the formation of a single state?

With the formation of a unified state, the importance of Russian cities changed. They were no longer the capitals of independent principalities, but became centers of crafts and trade.

8. What was exported from Russia to Western Europe in the 16th century? What goods were imported from Europe? What was the importance of trade for the development of Russia?

From Russia to Western Europe in the 16th century. They exported: grain, lard, potash, hemp and furs, meat and caviar, linen and bristles, resin and tar, wax and matting.

They imported goods from Europe: cloth, metals, gunpowder, weapons, pearls, precious stones, spices, incense, wine, paints, paper, lace.

Trade was of great importance for the development of Russia. Thanks to trade, the domestic market developed, the treasury was replenished, and the state was strengthened.

9. What do you think was the significance of the monetary reform carried out in the 1530s for the economic life of the country? What monetary unit became the main one in the unified Russian state?

For the economic life of the country, the monetary reform carried out in the 1530s was of great importance: the circulation of all old coins was prohibited, and counterfeiting was eliminated.

The main monetary unit in the unified Russian state was the Moscow ruble.

Page 20. Working with the map

1. Show on the map the territories where the Cossacks settled in the 16th century.

Territories of settlement of the Cossacks in the 16th century: Volga region, Ural, Don, south-eastern lands.

2. Having looked at the map of the textbook (pp. 60-61), tell me where there were more cities - west of the Volga or east of it?

There were more cities west of the Volga.

Page 20. Studying the document

1. What types of economic activities are mentioned in the text?

The text talks about gardening, animal husbandry, and food storage.

2. What significance did these activities have for the lives of Russians?

These activities fed the Russians.

Page 13. We think, compare, reflect

1. Famous Russian historian of the 19th century. S. M. Solovyov said that if for the peoples of Western Europe nature was a mother, then for the peoples of Russia it was a stepmother. How do you understand this comparison? Illustrate your answer with specific examples. What does the concept of “risky farming zone” mean?

With this comparison, S. M. Solovyov emphasizes the different climatic conditions in the countries of Western Europe and Russia, explaining the difficulties of farming. The concept of “risky farming zone” means unfavorable natural conditions for growing crops. The harsh and unstable climate with long, frosty winters and short summers was unfavorable for farming. Agricultural labor could only be done 130 days a year: plowing, sowing, growing and harvesting. Preparing food for pets at the same time also took time.

2. Analyze the proverbs and sayings of Russians dedicated to economic activity: “There will be frost in Yegorye - there will be millet and oats”, “Cuckoo to Yegorye - to crop failure and loss of livestock”, “Cold May - a grain-bearing year”, etc. What conclusions can be drawn based on them?

Based on these proverbs, we can draw the following conclusion: the life of Russians is agricultural labor; it played a major role in their lives.

4. From the text of the paragraph, select quotes that are controversial from the point of view of historians. Draw conclusions.

“Harvests throughout almost the entire territory of Russia were low” - the southeastern territories were suitable for farming.

“All Cossacks were considered free and equal. There was self-government in the Cossack communities” - among the Cossacks there was a stratification of property, there were also the poorest Cossacks who did not take part in resolving general issues.

5. Prove the relationship between monetary reform and trade growth.

The relationship between monetary reform and the growth of trade can be traced: single money - the Moscow ruble - ensured the formation of a single domestic market, which directly contributed to the development of trade.