History of dance. Dance of Antiquity. Dance of Ancient Greece. The connection between dance and mythology. Terpsichore. Religious, social, theatrical dances Festive dances in ancient Greece

The history of dances of the peoples of the West (Europe and countries that were formed by immigrants from Europe) is characterized by great diversity and fairly rapid changes. While most Eastern dancers practiced highly sophisticated dance forms that remained virtually unchanged for centuries or even millennia, Western dancers showed a constant willingness, even eagerness, to adopt new forms and ideas for their dances. Even the earliest references indicate that Western dance has always embraced a great variety of communal or ritual dances, and that social dances have been used by many different sections of society. It is immediately worth noting that Western art cannot always be clearly distinguished from “non-Western”. This is especially clear in a number of countries of the former Soviet Union, where some dances are Asian, while others are European in origin and character. This article is devoted specifically to the dance of Western peoples, excluding, where possible, the corresponding influence of other cultures.

From antiquity to the Renaissance

Before the first written reports began to appear, a huge period of time passed, about which scientists can only guess. Cave paintings in Spain and France, in which dancing human figures can be clearly discerned, have led to the hypothesis that religious rites and attempts to influence surrounding events through sympathetic magic were central motifs in primitive dance. Such assumptions have been partially confirmed by observing the dances of primitive peoples in the modern world, although the connection between ancient people and modern “primitive cultures” is completely denied by many scientists.

If the dances recorded in early writings developed directly from prehistoric dances, it may be possible to assume that there were prehistoric work dances, war dances, erotic dances, and group dances. Today, in the 20th century, one Bavarian-Austrian dance, the Schupplatter, has survived, which, according to historians, has its origins in the Neolithic, i.e., from about 3000 BC.

Dance in the ancient world

There are many written records of dances in the civilizations of Egypt, Greece and neighboring islands, as well as Rome. In addition, we can highlight the ancient Jewish dance, about which a lot is also known today. In Egypt, formalized rituals and ritual dances were practiced, in which the priest symbolized the god. These dances, which were the culmination of the ceremony representing the death and rebirth of the god Osiris, became more and more complex and eventually could only be performed by specially trained dancers.

Also from Egypt, the earliest written evidence of dancing has reached modern times. These records speak of a class of professional dancers who were originally imported from Africa to entertain wealthy people in their leisure hours and to perform at religious and funeral ceremonies. These dancers were considered very valuable "acquisitions", especially the dwarf dancers, who became famous for their skill. One of the pharaohs, after his death, was awarded the honor of performing the “dance of the dwarf god,” and Pharaoh Neferkare (3rd millennium BC) instructed one of his entourage to bring the “dancing dwarf from the Land of Spirits” to his court.

Today, scientists suggest that the famous belly dance, which is performed today by dancers from the Middle East, is actually of African origin. Back in the 4th century BC. in Egyptian Memphis, a couple dance was described in detail, somewhat similar to the rumba, which had a clearly expressed erotic character. The Egyptians also knew acrobatic choreographed dances, similar to modern adagio dances. They also stood out for their sensuality and attracted people with the graceful movements of scantily clad dancers. A painting from the tomb of Sheikh Abdul-Qurn (which is currently on display in the British Museum) shows dancers wearing only bracelets and belts, which was apparently intended to enhance their attractiveness.

Soon dances in Egypt began to evolve and become more varied and complex. In addition to their own temple dance rituals and pygmy dancers brought from the upper Nile, Hindu girls' dances also appeared from conquered countries in the east. These new dances no longer had the characteristic sweeping movements of men or the rigid, angular poses that can be found on many Egyptian stone reliefs. Their movements were soft and smooth, without sudden bends. These Asian girls brought a feminine style to Egyptian dancing.

Dance in classical Greece

Many Egyptian influences can be found in Greek dance. Some came to Greece through the Cretan culture, others through Greek philosophers who went to study in Egypt. The philosopher Plato (ca. 428 - 348 BC) was one such person and it was he who became an influential dance theorist. According to his teachings, dancing differed from awkward movements like convulsions in that it emphasized the beauty of the body. The dances of the Egyptian cult of the sacred bull Apis later found their embodiment in the Cretan bull dance around 1400 BC. It was he who inspired the creation of dances in the labyrinth, which, according to legend, Theseus brought to Athens upon his return with the young men and women freed from the labyrinth.

Another dance form that originated on the island of Crete and flourished in Greece was the pyrrhiha, the weapon dance. It was practiced in Sparta as part of military training, and was also the basis for the philosopher Socrates' assertion that the best dancer is the best warrior. Other group dances that came to Athens from Crete included two dances dedicated to Apollo, as well as a dance in which naked boys imitated a wrestling match. Women's virtues were emphasized by a majestic and pious round dance in honor of the gods, which was performed by girls.

Numerous vases, paintings and sculptural reliefs have helped modern scientists prove that ecstatic dance associated with the cult of Dionysus existed in Greece. It was performed at the festival of “sacred madness” during the autumn grape harvest. In his drama The Bacchae, Euripides (ca. 480-406 BC) described the rampage of Greek women called Bacchae or Maenads. In this dance, they twirled furiously and rhythmically minted their steps, falling into a trance. Such dances were a manifestation of obsession, which was a characteristic of many primitive dances.

The Dionysian cult led to the creation of Greek drama. After the women, men dressed in masks of depraved satyrs entered the dance. Gradually, the priest, singing the life, death and return of Dionysus, while his minions immediately represented his words with dances and pantomime, became a real actor. The scope of the dance slowly expanded to include objects and characters taken from Homeric legends. A second actor and chorus were also added. In lyrical interludes between games, dancers recreated dramatic themes through movements adopted from earlier ritual and Bacchic dances. The comedies featured the very popular “kordax” - a masked dance that was famous for its debauchery. In the tragedies, the choir performed “emmeleya” - a sedate dance accompanied by playing the flute.

These dances and plays were performed by experienced amateurs. However, at the end of the 5th century BC, a special class of dancers, acrobats and jugglers arose, the women of which belonged to the "hetarai" or courtesans. Just as had happened before in Egypt, they entertained guests at feasts and banquets. The historian Xenophon (ca. 430-355 BC) in his work "Symposium" talks about the praise that Socrates lavished on a dancer and a dancing boy. Elsewhere, Xenophon describes a dance representing the union of the legendary heroine Ariadne with Dionysus, an early example of narrative dance.

Dance in Ancient Rome

There was a significant difference between the Etruscans and the Romans in their approach to dance. Little is known today about the Etruscans, who inhabited the area north of Rome to Florence and flourished between the 7th and 5th centuries BC. But thanks to the discovery of their tombs, which contained numerous paintings on the walls, it became clear that dance played an important role in the way the Etruscans enjoyed life. On these frescoes were found paintings of Etruscan women performing funeral dances in chains, as well as lively, energetic couple dances. All these dances were performed in public places without masks and were in the nature of courtship.

The Romans, by contrast, had a different attitude towards dance, which reflected their sober rationalism and realism. However, the Romans did not completely escape the temptations of dance. Before 200 BC dances in ancient Rome were performed only in the form of choral processions. Whole processions took part in them, led by the high priests of the Salii, the priestly college of the priests of Mars and Quirin, who walked in a circle, rhythmically striking their shields. Dance was an important part of Roman festivals - during the celebrations of Lupercalia and Saturnalia, wild group dances were performed that were the forerunners of the late European carnival.

Later, Greek and Etruscan influences began to spread in Rome, although the Roman nobility considered people who were seen dancing as suspicious, effeminate and even dangerous. One government official literally could not believe his eyes when he saw dozens of daughters and sons of respected Roman patricians and citizens thoroughly enjoying their leisure time at a dance school. Around 150 BC all dance schools were closed, but the dancing could no longer be stopped. And although dancing may have been alien to the inner nature of the Romans, in subsequent years dancers and dance teachers began to be imported increasingly from other countries. The statesman and scientist Cicero (106-43 BC) summed up the general opinion of the Romans when he once declared that no one would dance until they went crazy.

The most popular form of dance during the reign of Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD) was wordless, spectacular pantomime, which conveyed dramatic stories through stylized gestures. The performers, known as pantomimes, were at first considered to be translators from a foreign language, since they came from Greece. They constantly improved their art, and two mime dancers, Batyl and Pilade, became real star performers during Augustan Rome. The stylized performance of the dancers, who wore masks that matched the theme of their dance, was accompanied by musicians playing flutes, horns and percussion instruments, as well as a choir who sang about what was happening on stage between dance sequences.

Source Wikipedia and 4dancing.ru

"There are young men and blooming maidens, desired by many,
They dance in a circular choir, kindly intertwining their hands.
Virgins in linen and light clothes, youths in vestments
They are lightly dressed, and their purity, like oil, shines;
Those - lovely wreaths of flowers decorate everyone;
These are golden knives, on silver belts over the shoulder.
They dance and spin with their skillful feet,
As easy as turning a wheel under the experienced hand,
If a poor person tests him to see if he can spin easily;
Then they will develop and dance in rows, one after another.
(Homer "Iliad", translation by N.I. Gnedich)

Types of dances
The dances of antiquity were divided into military and civilian. Later there was a division into theatrical dancing, religious dances and other elements of worship rituals, war dances, dances at symposiums, dances of sorrow etc. Each type of performance - tragedies, comedies, and satirical plays - had its own characteristic dances, some calm and solemn, and some featuring obscene acts using objects of phallic symbolism. The following dances were quoted in ancient texts:

Pyrrhic was best known among military dances, and was part of mainstream military education in both Athens and Sparta. The name "pyrrhic" is believed to come from the word "pyra", meaning the fire around which Achilles allegedly danced at the funeral of Patroclus.

Relief with dancing warriors.
Marble. Roman copy of the late Republic from a Greek model from the classical era.
Inv. No. 321. Rome, Vatican Museums, Pius-Clementine Museum

Epilinium was a "Dionic" dance performed on vats while crushing grapes with one's feet.

Emelia is originally a round dance of a cult purpose (often at the bedside of a dying person), of a solemn, majestic and sublime character, at a slow or measured pace. Unlike pyrrhic dances, it was performed by women and was distinguished by the beauty of its forms and grace of plasticity. The movements of the dancers' hands were especially expressive - complex in pattern and expressive in character, while his legs and body were relatively motionless. Having originated as a religious dance, emmelia subsequently became an integral part of ancient Greek tragedy.

Kordak was a comedy dance, it was danced by actors. The dance movements included a variety of spins and jumps at a frantic pace. Although it was related to the content of the play, it was still not a simple illustration of the action. Most likely, the kordak consisted of inserted comic scenes, a kind of choreographic buffoonery. Interestingly, this dance was considered unworthy of serious men.

The dance of satirical drama - Sikinnis, which is oriented towards the tastes of ordinary people and often represents a parody of many aspects of public life, had much in common with it.

Estates was a wedding dance. Performed by the bride, her mother and friends. It was distinguished by its impetuous character, fast pace and the presence of many turns.

Initially, the dance was a complex consisting of facial expressions, gestures, movements of the body and legs.

In ancient centuries, facial expressions - the first language of mankind - were inextricably linked with the art of dance. Moreover, all movements in ancient times were called nothing more than dancing! The Greeks did not recognize dance only as a pretext for rhythmic movements and beautiful poses - on the contrary, they sought to ensure that every dance movement expressed some kind of thought, action, deed, something that spoke to the viewer. And Spanish dances, even to this day, through their super-expressiveness, can sometimes convey much more than ordinary human speech. It was believed that people in ancient times danced because the gods pulled people by the strings tied to their arms and legs. In fact, the dance originated from the need of primitive people to communicate and transmit some vital information. By copying the movements of animals, primitive people tried to penetrate into the mental state of this animal, to understand its “essence,” which significantly helped primitive people when hunting, and therefore was a necessity for survival!

Primitive dance, of course, arose from emotions and was directly related to acute experiences. Initially, the dances also contained a certain element of play: in nature, in the other “I”, in the “new” and the well-forgotten “old”. Primitive man was endowed with a few movements, but every day brought new difficulties, as a result of which algorithms of behavior and the typification of new gestures were developed. One of the ways to replenish the ancient dance arsenal was to imitate the movements of animals. The basis of primitive dances was magic and ritual. The movements performed during the ritual action were always somehow directed and had a strictly defined purpose. Dance here acted as a means of bringing oneself into a specific state, different from everyday life. Dance was thus a kind of channel into the unknown and acted as an opportunity to control the irrational aspects of human life.

Every dance among the ancients marked the connection of a person with powerful cosmic energies necessary to experience important, milestone events in his life: birth - entry into adulthood - marriage - birth of offspring - hunting - war - death. That is, they danced not out of excess strength, but to acquire it.

Totemic dances, which lasted for several days, were usually the scenario of myths about fantastic journeys from the life of the first ancestors. In the totemic dances of different tribes, their main feature is clearly manifested - complete assimilation to the totem. The vocabulary of totemic dance is determined by the nature of the plasticity of a certain type of animal, bird, or insect. These dances were always dynamic in their structure, emphasizing movements rather than poses. In totemic dances, a person literally transformed, becoming more like the animal being depicted than himself (that is, outwardly the dancer acquired animal features). These ancient dances also included scenes from scenes of hunting, playing with birds and animals. The most ancient people knew how to skillfully copy the habits of animals, as if transforming into them in a dance. Such transformation, in their opinion, helped to gain the courage and endurance characteristic of this or that animal. Each tribe had its own sacred animal, which they worshiped, in whose honor they danced until they dropped. For this, it rewarded them in battle with all its valuable qualities, bringing good luck and victory. Each had from ten to thirty types of male hunting dances, each with a special name, special songs, musical instruments, steps, figures and costumes of the participants. Each movement had its own sacred meaning.

In hunting dances, men trained their powers of observation, learned to track animals and camouflage themselves, that is, psychological and physical preparation took place in the dance, which contributed to success in the hunt.

As for women's rituals, they were among the most widespread in the art of the Upper Paleolithic. Rituals of fire and procreation, plant forces of nature, animal reproduction and hunting success were associated with the image of a woman in her forms. Among some tribes of southwest Africa, a large procession with torches of fire, organized during an unsuccessful hunt, was led only by the Great Woman. In addition to women's dance rituals associated with the cult of fertility, dances were widespread in which women were embodied in the image of one or another plant useful to the tribe.

Women performed war dances either with weapons in their hands, from time to time throwing them forward (which symbolized the pursuit of a fleeing enemy) and backward (which was intended to distance their own husbands from danger). Often these dances were performed with ritual white brooms made from the tail of a buffalo or horse - women waved these objects widely throughout the dance (so that their husbands would “sweep away” their enemies from the face of the earth). War dances have always been the most significant ritual actions of the tribe. They were performed without interruption, day and night, until the men returned from the campaign.

The oldest and most widespread symbolic sign in dance was the circle. Forming in a circle was considered a talisman against evil forces and guaranteed a successful outcome of the ritual. In hunting dances the circle meant a round-up, in agricultural dances it symbolized fertility. They treated and married in the circle. However, the circle is not the only known form of mass dancing. Lines were also a widespread form of dance performance, especially military dances. The dances of the ancients also reproduced such complex figures as a labyrinth and a drawing of a crawling snake.

For primitive man, reality and fiction were equivalent. And it is no coincidence that ritual actions could last several weeks - which means it was vitally necessary!
But gradually the ritual beginning, where the dance had a deep meaning, begins to be replaced by a purely bodily, entertaining one. Thus there was a smooth transition from primitive dance to ancient dance.

In Greece, everyone danced: from peasants to Socrates. Dancing was not only one of the educational disciplines, but adults also willingly continued to study it. All dances of antiquity were performed for spectators, and not for pleasure and personal amusement. It is estimated that the total number of ancient Greek dances is more than two hundred. Conventionally, they can be classified into five groups:
- martial dances - ritual and educational;
- moderate cults - emmelia, dance of the veils and dances of the caryatids, as well as dances at birth, weddings and funerals;
- orgiastic dances;
- public and theatrical dances;
- dancing in everyday life.

Let us characterize the most significant dance groups:

A) War dances
"Pyrrhus" is one of the most striking war dances. It was also known as “pyrrhichium”, “pyrrhiha”. It originated in Sparta. We started learning this dance at the age of five. Essentially, pyrrhiha is a virtuoso dance with swords and shields. Pyrrhich was one of the favorite feast entertainments, especially when it was performed by dancers.

B) Cult dances
Emmelia is a very measured dance in slow rhythms, such as round dances and farandoles.

The dance of the veils and the dance of the caryatids are more lively. The Caryatids are the same dancers who first used the technique of dancing on pointe shoes in their dances. Indeed, pointe shoes were used in antiquity, but they were not similar to modern ones. Antique pointe shoes are a stand on the ends of the toes, but barefoot, without any special shoes. The men danced this way too.

B) Theatrical dances
Each of the three types of theatrical performances of the classical era had its own dance: tragedy is characterized by emellia; for comedy - kordak; for satirical drama - sikkanida.

Dances as spectacular entertainment were led by mimes (buffoons, clowns, acrobats, jugglers). Not a single feast of rich and respectable citizens was complete without them. Let us list the characteristic features of a virtuoso mime dance:
- the technique is based on turning the legs;
- practiced dancing on pointe shoes and various jumps;
- favorite manner - a sharp turn of the body into a plane perpendicular to the legs;
- acrobatic cubism (dancing on hands in a variety of poses) and virtuoso pyrrhic are typical for dancers;
- dancing with cups and baskets is popular;
- a characteristic technique in Greek dances is bending the hand upward at a right angle.

The Greeks also had a whole system, a complex technique of playing with hands in dances - chironomy. Hands have always spoken a conventional language, the key to which, unfortunately, is lost today.
Ritual dances in Ancient Greece are very diverse, but they are conventionally divided into two main dance cults: “light” in honor of the god Apollo and “dark” in honor of the god Dionysus. We can observe the remnants of ancient Greek ritual dances in honor of Apollo and other light gods in an ordinary children's New Year's round dance. The only difference is that the object of worship is not a statue, but a spruce tree. The root connection of these rituals goes back to ancient times, when it was customary to carry out ritual cleansing before the onset of the New Year. However, in the ancient world there were other dance rituals that concentrated exactly everything that was expelled from the solemn Apollonian cult: a riot of gestures, the superiority of the body over the spirit. Everything dark and obscene spilled out in a festival dedicated to Dionysus, the god of fertility.

The development of dance in Ancient Rome, its difference from ancient Greek dance.

While Greece celebrated each celebration with a wide variety of dances, the ancient Romans used only warlike and wild dances. If the ancient Greeks combined both the rational and the orgiastic principles in various types of their dances, then the ancient Romans, by all indications, were distinguished by a more rational mindset. This can confirm the fact that there is almost no detailed evidence left about ancient Roman dances.

An analysis of the culture of Ancient Rome shows us a clear division into the culture of the “elite” and the culture of the common masses of people. This was undoubtedly reflected in the development of dance culture. If we do not have any information about the dances of the elite, then there are many references to the dances of slaves. Only later, during the reign of Numa Pompilius, the nymph Egeria gave the Romans new rules for new dances. These were Salian dances, for which twelve priests were chosen from among representatives of noble families - they had to dance in temples, glorifying the gods and heroes.
In addition, pyrrhic blossomed in Rome. True, the word “pyrrhiha” received a new meaning here - this is how ensemble dance in general began to be called, as opposed to solo dance.

In Etruria, which was more civilized, all the arts flourished long before the founding of Rome - there were excellent mimic actors and a wide variety of dances existed. From this country came dancers to Rome who accompanied their bizarre dances on flutes - they were called histriones (from the word “histor”, which meant “mythical actor”). During their performances, they declared entire poems, and all Roman youth began to imitate them. The Romans fell in love with pantomime most of all: they were still disgusted by the orgiastic beginning of the Dionysian festivities, and from the Apollonian rhythms they left only the culture of a beautiful gesture (ancient Roman facial expressions are used almost unchanged to this day). The Romans' passion for pantomime and admiration for certain performers reached the point that during the reign of Augustus all of Rome was, as it were, divided into two hostile camps: some were adherents of the famous dancer and mime Pylades, others recognized only Baphilus.

Subsequently, with the growth of the Roman Empire, the influence of Greece and the East led to the development of dance culture in ancient Roman society and even to the emergence of dance schools. Most likely, their first founders were mimes.

The meaning and variety of dance in Ancient Egypt.

The monuments of art and literature that have reached us prove that dance in Ancient Egypt was of no small importance. Almost not a single festival, not a single solemn religious ceremony was complete without dancing. Dance dominated in Egypt as an expression of joy and was synonymous with the word “rejoicing.” Among the names of dances of ancient Egypt, the most common ones are ib, mww, tereb, nebeb, the image of which is well preserved on reliefs. The determinant of all dances is the figure of a person with a raised arm and leg. The mww dance apparently also served as a funeral dance.

Most of the sacred ancient Egyptian cults were surrounded by dance rituals. The performances associated with the myth of Osiris and Isis, which lasted for several days in a row, were graceful and solemn. Similar cult actions also include the dance that accompanies the service of women before the sacred Egyptian bull Apis. The patron gods of fun, music and dancing among the Egyptians, in addition to Hathor, were also Nehemaut and the bearded dwarf-shaped Hatiy (he was depicted dancing and playing musical instruments in front of the goddess Hathor). Apparently, already in the era of the Old Kingdom, the religious dance of dwarfs played a prominent role in Egyptian rituals and was very highly valued. There were also so-called astronomical dances of priests in Egypt, which depicted the movement of various celestial bodies harmoniously distributed in the Universe. Let's try to briefly describe this unique, in our opinion, dance. It took place in the temple: around the altar, placed in the middle and representing the sun, priests dressed in bright dresses, representing the signs of the zodiac, smoothly moved and circled. According to Plutarch's explanation, they first moved from east to west (reminiscent of the movement of the sky), then from west to east (imitating the movement of the planets), then stopped as a sign of the immobility of the earth. This dance is a clear example of how various dance rituals formed in people not only an idea of ​​the planetary system and the harmony of perpetual motion (as in this case), but also generally determined the spiritual development of each people.

In view of the important role that dance played in Egyptian rituals, we can conclude that in Egypt there were special institutions where dancers were trained. In confirmation of this, we came across several indications that the temple of Amon had its own choreographic school that trained priestesses - dancers.

Along with dances consisting of harmonious rhythmic movements, dances were very common in Ancient Egypt, which were direct exercises in agility, flexibility, and sometimes completely turned into purely gymnastic exercises. As for the costume, we only found information that the dancers wore a short apron, sometimes with a belt around the waist, which was tied with a loop. Women danced either naked or in long and transparent dresses. But in ritual dances, the dancers had to be dressed (this is how they expressed respect to a sacred animal or deity). The dancers' arms and legs were always decorated with bracelets, their chests with a necklace, and their heads with a ribbon or lotus flower. We also have information that they danced in Ancient Egypt to the accompaniment of musical instruments (harp, lyre, lute and double flute), singing and clapping.

The New Kingdom was dominated by a dance that is still very common in the east - the Almey dance, which was danced in long transparent dresses with fringes to the sounds of a tambourine or castanets.

Having thus examined the development and determined the significance of dance in the main states of antiquity, we were clearly convinced that dance was a necessity for the spiritual development of every people.

National dances of Spain and India as a reflection of the national character of these countries.

National dances are inextricably linked with the peculiarities of the national character of any people. No wonder Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy wrote: “the soul of the people is in dance.” From here we can draw a conclusion: in order to unravel the soul of a nation, it is enough just to become familiar with its national dance in detail. Let's try, using the example of two countries: Spain and India, to examine the national souls of the peoples of these countries through national dances.

Maximilian Voloshin wrote at the beginning of the twentieth century: “Spain always dances, dances everywhere. She dances ritual dances at funerals at the coffin of the deceased; she dances in the Seville Cathedral in front of the altar; dances on the barricades and before the death penalty; dances day and night..."

We cannot talk about Spanish dances in general, since the folklore of each province is extremely original and unique. So, for example, the northern Spanish Basques are courageously - stern and archaic, the Castilians are restrained - tense, the Aragonese, on the contrary, are infectiously cheerful and straightforward, but the dances of the south of Spain - Andalusia and Murcia - are especially passionate. But there were also dances that were common to the whole country. Among these dances was primarily the fandango dance. It is the national motif of Spain. Fandango music had enormous power over the soul and heart of every true Spaniard, as if it ignited their hearts with a spark. The dance started slowly, but gradually accelerated. Some dancers armed themselves with castanets, others simply snapped their fingers, women beat time with their heels to the sound of guitars and violins. Fandango is danced in three steps, quickly, like a whirlwind, very characteristic and temperamental. The classic fandango was a pair dance, based on the play of partners, in which any touching is prohibited, on an argument, a competition consisting of the dancers moving closer and further away from each other, here the expressiveness of the eyes and gestures plays a big role.

Let's take a brief look at another national dance - the bolero. This dance appeared only at the end of the 16th century and was invented by Sebastian Seretso (the famous choreographer during the reign of Charles III). Bolero is a kind of Spanish ballet, slowly but relentlessly asserting its position in the canons of classical dance. They said that “the fandango ignites, and the bolero intoxicates.” Of course, speaking about Spanish characteristic national dances, we cannot fail to mention the famous flamenco. It is rather not a dance, but a whole group of dances. Flamenco originated from the southern province of Spain, Andalusia. It is still not possible to accurately determine the meaning of the word “flamenco”. Although there are many versions, the most appropriate, in our opinion, is that “flamenco” comes from the Latin word “flamma” (fire), since the dance is truly “fiery” in nature; was originally ritual and dates back to the time of the cult of fire. There is also an interesting version that this word comes from the name of the flamingo bird, since the costumes of the dancers emphasize the slender figure, as well as the whimsical movements of this exotic bird. The dance itself is very original; in it we will not find any trace of pantomime or specific theatrical gestures. The "bailaor" (flamenco dancer) could dance alone, which emphasized his independence from the world. The bailaor expressed all the feelings characteristic of a collective dance independently. In general, a single dance implied a silent collective action. Baylaor competes with himself in this dance - hence the amazing expressiveness and passion of the dance, deep feelings and spiritual work. Particular importance in the performance of all flamenco dances is given to hand movements, which represent the language of the dance. No wonder Ovid also said: “if you have a voice, sing, if you have soft hands, dance.” The hands of women in flamenco are flexible, expressive, sensitive; fingers are in constant motion. In men, on the contrary, hand movements are strict, sublime, with clear plasticity; they cut through the air like a sword strike.

Based on the description of the main dances of Spain, we can identify three main components of Spanish dance: a proud stance of the body, reminiscent of a matador, flexible and expressive bends of the dancers’ arms and zapateado (the rhythmic clicking of the dancers’ heels). All this perfectly characterizes the national soul of the Spanish people, who are unusually passionate, expressive, emotional, ardent and temperamental.

Features of the development of Indian dance culture (love orientation).

According to one legend, dance in India originated thanks to the god Shiva the Destroyer. Shiva himself was an excellent dancer and taught his wife Parvati the art of dance, which he loved most. He danced tandava, a more energetic form, and Parvati danced lasya, a more refined, graceful form. Traditions also say that Brahma, the Creator, was very concerned about the strife and disorder that reigned on Earth. Since the four Vedas were kept strictly secret by the Brahmins, he decided to create a fifth Veda, accessible to everyone. The art of theatrical acting, to which the Natyaveda was dedicated, was first taught by Brahma to the sage Bharata. Bharata showed his triune arts - drama, music and dance - to Shiva. Remembering his own energetic dance, Shiva ordered the chief assistant from his retinue to teach Bharata the art of tandava. Bharata combined this art with the knowledge he already had and wrote Natyashastra, a comprehensive work on the art of theater. Bharata and other sages spread this art among the peoples of the Earth.

Thus, these traditions clearly define the connection of the arts of dance, music and drama with divinity and immortality. We can still see how strongly classical dance in India is related to religion and mythology. This is most clearly reflected not only in the choice of themes embodied, but also in the manner of performing the dance. Which in turn directly affects the formation of spiritual life in India.

The central motive of the Vishnitz cult for centuries was the desire of man for unity with the deity. The gods responded not only with reciprocity, but also with an “individual approach.” The rias lila dance, performed in Braj, a locality in the Mathura region of Uttar Pradesh where Krishna is said to have been born and lived, depicts Krishna's ability to create in each of the gopis (cowherd girls) dancing on it the illusion that she alone is dancing. with him. This is how the allegory of the mortal soul approaching the deity with trust and love, traditional for the spiritual life of India, was expressed. Rias-lila is a beautiful dance, it is still performed today accompanied by appropriate chants.

These are the many-faced Indian deities with numerous stories associated with them and form the thematic basis of Indian dance. In dance, events are not simply stated, but their symbolic essence is revealed and faith is affirmed - through the power of verse, music and movement. All classical dance forms in India have two aspects: Nritta and Nritya. Nritya can be described as pure dance, that is, abstract body movements coordinated with hastas (hand gestures). Nritya is a combination of pure dance with plot. But the plot dance here was very different from pantomime. This is not just an imitation of human behavior. In addition to nritta and nritya, there is a third aspect in the dance tradition of India. This is natya, that is, a performance of action and gestures with or without dance. In general, this is a type of dramatic art. All these three aspects are considered, however, to be closely related to each other. Speaking about the art of dance, in our opinion, it is necessary to note one of the most striking features of the development of Indian culture as a whole. This is a deep connection between different types of arts. If music, dance and drama were extremely close to dance culture, then literature, painting, sculpture and even architecture were also not divorced or isolated from the dance tradition. The role of literature in dance has been and continues to be extremely important, since nritya, for example, is the interpretation of poetry by dance. In India, there are even entire poems specially written for dance performance. The best example, in our opinion, is the classic work of Sanskrit literature of the 12th century “Gida - Govinda” by Jayadeva. Since dancing initially occupied a large place in temple rituals, the architect provided a special platform on the temple grounds. The famous Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu has a large hall built exclusively for dance performances. The Sun Temple at Kanaraka, Orissa, has a huge and intricately decorated Dance Hall, the Nata Mandal, whose proximity to the sea gives it an ethereal beauty.

The walls of temples in different parts of India, especially in the south and Orissa, are decorated with various friezes and panels depicting dancers and musicians.

The main types of ballroom dances in the 16th - 17th centuries

In Shakespeare’s comedy Much Ado About Nothing, one of the characters, in our opinion, brilliantly characterizes the main dances that existed at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries: “Courtship, marriage and repentance are the same as the Scottish jig, measured dance and galliard: the first is as ardent and hasty as a Scotch jig, and as full of imagination; marriage is decorously modest, like a measured dance, full of dignity and antiquity; and then repentance sets in and with its developed legs it falls in the galliard faster and faster until it falls into the grave.” These were the main directions of dance at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries. It should also be noted that if until the end of the 16th century and partly in the 17th century, parterre, “low” dances (bass dances) that did not require jumping from the performers - branles, pavanes, chimes - dominated, then the era of light “flying” French dances began.

1. Branle.

The school of ballroom dancing was formed during the Renaissance and it can be considered that branle, both folk and salon, was the fundamental beginning of the further development of the art of dance. This dance was originally a folk dance, and its ballroom form was born from this peasant form and was distinguished only by a large number of curtseys and smooth movements, while in the folk branle tapping predominated. The main movements of branle included pavante, courante and gavotte. The musical accompaniment of this dance consisted of rather monotonous tambourine beats, flute sounds and monotonous singing of the dancers. If older people liked to dance a slow double branle, middle-aged people danced a branle with a reprise, then young people preferred a cheerful branle with jumping and raising their legs forward into the air. Thus, the simple branle was the source of all the salon dances that appeared later.

2. Pavana.
Pavana is one of the oldest Spanish dances known to us. Pavane and chimes in the 16th century were the main and most beloved dances. Only the appearance of the minuet made people forget first the chime, and then the pavante. The pavana is believed to be of Italian origin, as Catherine de' Medici was the patroness of all things Italian. The main merit of the pavan, in our opinion, is that it was the first time that public dances acquired certain forms, character and style of performance. Before the pavane, numerous branleys differed from each other only in their names. The pavane also had a specific goal - to show society the majesty of the dancers and the richness of their costumes. The movement of the pavana was the movement of a flaunting peahen. Another difference between pavane and branle was that the pavane figures began with the beginning of the musical phrase, while in branle there was only tempo. The pavana was danced by one or two couples at a time, and there was also a strict order of their order depending on their origin and social status. The king and queen opened the ball, then other noble persons.

3. Minuet.
Not a single dance of the 16th - 17th centuries was as popular as the minuet, which is a generally recognized example of salon dance art. Over the course of several centuries, the minuet either rose to the pinnacle of dance glory, or was subject to temporary oblivion, but was never completely replaced by another dance. Dance historians say that “the minuet is the dance of kings and the king of dances.” At the turn of the 18th century, aristocratic society expressed its attitude towards the minuet in the following phrase: “whoever dances the minuet well does everything well.” The main features of the minuet performance were ceremoniality, gallantry and solemnity. The step of the minuet was very smooth and one movement followed from the other. Pas grave - which means “important, majestic step” - is one of the main dance elements of the minuet. In the 18th century, during the Baroque period, a more dynamic, “fast minuet” appeared. But the minuet is depicted somewhat differently at balls in the 19th century. In these stage minuets, as in the famous minuet from Mozart’s Don Giovanni, which has always been considered a classic example of this dance, a number of dance positions do not correspond to the original minuet of the 17th century. Which, in our opinion, does not in any way detract from the delights of the stage minuet, but on the contrary testifies to the enormous plastic richness of this dance. Having survived many eras, the minuet, unfortunately, has not survived to this day, and we can only watch this dance on the theater stage.

Thus, having dwelled in detail on the description of the main ballroom dances of the 16th - 7th centuries, we were clearly convinced that among the most important features of the dances of this time we can distinguish such as smoothness, regularity, importance, which naturally was characteristic of the ideology of all life of that time .

Formation and development of dance culture in Russia

The concept of “dance” was given to the Russians by the Poles who arrived in Moscow during the Time of Troubles with Dmitry the Pretender. Before this, there were no “salon dances” in Rus', as in Western Europe. Women's round dances took place in the towers, and dancing flourished among the people. In general, the attitude towards dancing was wary. “Crazy fun” combined with dancing was considered “a soul-destroying invention of the devil,” “a demonic game.”

Under Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, entertainers were invited for the royal fun - Germans and Poles, including dancers. In 1673, Orpheus, a play with singing and dancing, was performed in the comedy chamber in the Kremlin. In the prologue, Orpheus sang the king's praises and then danced with the two pyramids. At this time, the love of dancing developed not only at the royal court, but also among noble Moscow people who set up their own home theaters (boyar Morozov, Prince Golitsyn, Dolgoruky).
The young Tsar Fedor, who replaced Alexei Mikhailovich, was not a lover of entertainment. The love of dancing was supported only by the ruler Sophia, who gathered girls in her mansions and “arranged dances.”

A turning point occurred under Peter I. After the replacement of long men's suits with short camisoles, Russian dances disappeared from court life. Instead, Peter introduced foreign dances. By decree of the tsar, under pain of cruel punishment, all Russian girls were ordered to dance. Russian ladies and gentlemen learned the minuet, polonaise and country dance from captured Swedish officers. Peter himself, his wife Catherine and daughter Elizabeth took part in the dances and did it, according to contemporaries, quite gracefully. The attitude towards dancing at this time was more like a serious, almost “state” matter, which was reflected in the entire order of dance ensembles.

Thus, at this time in Russia, “harmless” dances at first glance turned into a kind of weapon of social struggle against the “reactionary boyars.” The inability to dance becomes shameful, so the boyars begin to appoint teachers (dance masters) for themselves. At the assemblies, strictly developed rules of behavior were established, the manner of communicating with a lady in dance and even in bows. There were also fast dances, including improvisational ones. They said that Peter himself loved to change figures, deliberately frightening and making fun of those who could not dance.
One of the circumstances characterizing the attitude towards dance is that now dance movements were no longer determined in any way: neither by ritual, nor simply by natural human physicality, therefore, in our opinion, a dull feeling of protest arises against obligations imposed from the outside.

The introduction of balls (“assemblies”) by Peter I caused displeasure among older people and great enthusiasm among young people. Since Russian life in the pre-Petrine era was rather dreary from day to day: the main activity was going to church and then sitting in the mansion. Public entertainment was not practiced, only weddings were distinguished by extraordinary pomp. It is interesting, in our opinion, that the Russians never developed pair dances; this, in our opinion, can be explained by the peculiarities of the Orthodox faith, where there has never been a cult of the Mother of God, as in Catholicism. In addition, Orthodoxy made stricter moral demands on people, so the release of bodily energy was impossible in an obvious, open form. The attitude towards Dionysian dances in Rus' was very strict; they were considered a great sin. Peter's reforms made the life of society more harmonious: there was no need to hide one's desire to have fun; moreover, this desire became the top priority among wealthy people. The most common dances at Peter's assemblies were minuet, pavane, chime and others. But Peter considered them very boring and invented his own dance, much more animated. Subsequently, under Anna Ionovna, not only foreign entertainment came into fashion. The Empress also loved Russian dances (“bychok” or “kamarinskaya”).

Social life in the 19th century, its reflection in the development of dance culture.

Compared to the previous era, the 19th century provided individuals with much greater freedom in choosing their life path. Liberation also occurred on a purely spiritual level. The idea of ​​God gradually faded away in the 19th century. Secular life, which became so popular in the previous era, is replacing church life to such an extent that God is remembered only on Sundays. The ideals of society are again turning towards individualism. Romantic impetuosity, the gravitation of spiritual bondage, the aspiration to other, higher ideals, characteristic of the public mood during this period, were clearly manifested in dance. The waltz becomes the king of all dances, which is a way of emancipation from the conventions that were still the mainstay of social life.

In the 19th century, the French dance salon school gradually faded away. Thus, light jumps, considered mandatory in the 18th century, are gradually being replaced by simple steps. At balls, the position of “dance conductor” (“steward”) appears, who was a kind of commander who monitored the conduct of the ball. It was customary to open the ball with a waltz, the first round of which was usually given to the most honorable persons from among the guests, if the hosts of the evening did not grant this honor to the manager himself.

In the 19th century in St. Petersburg, court balls were held in the Winter and Anichkov palaces and were extremely popular. The ball began with a polonaise, which was followed by a minuet. The ball would not be complete without a mazurka and, of course, a waltz. At this time, another dance appeared, the success of which eclipsed the popularity of all the others - the polka. The ball ended with a dance - a game of cotillion, a kind of farewell performance by all participants.

Let's take a closer look at the waltz.

The waltz did not have any of the features of a fashionable salon dance. In addition, before the waltz there was no salon dance where a lady would be hugged around the waist, looking straight into her eyes. And it is in the waltz that the lady and the gentleman first become a single dancing couple. There were official and unofficial protests against the waltz. In Vienna in the first decade of the 19th century, it was forbidden to dance a waltz for more than ten minutes. At balls given in the palaces of the German Kaisers, the waltz was banned throughout almost the entire 19th century, as it was considered a “sensual and obscene dance.” Conservative English society adopted the waltz a quarter of a century later than most other European countries. In Russia, the waltz was also persecuted. Catherine II disliked him, and under Paul I a police order was published prohibiting “the use of the dance called walsen.” But all this only increased the craving for dance, and the 19th century passed under the symbol of the waltz; it was danced in all circles of society. The waltz had a significant influence on the development of all European music of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The forties of the 19th century were a time of rapid passion for polka not only in Paris, but throughout Europe, including Russia. Because literally everyone and everywhere danced, regardless of age and social status.

The most fashionable toilets and dishes were called “a la Polka”. English newspapers then even joked that politics had faded into the background, giving way to the Polish woman.
Under Catherine II, the mazurka appeared in Russia for the first time, but then it had almost no success. Only at the beginning of the 19th century did this dance become very popular in Russian cities. By that time, the mazurka was becoming widespread in other European countries, especially in the Czech Republic, Hungary and France. In Russia there were two mazurkas: salon and folk. Fashionable French dance masters gave folk dance a salon character and the necessary gloss. In this version, the mazurka was danced in the highest St. Petersburg society. The Mazurka gradually replaced the French quadrille and became the apogee of the ball, marking its culmination.

We can say that with the advent of the cancan, a new dance era begins. The cancan originated in Paris around 1830. It was a female dance performed on stage, accompanied by high kicking of the legs. In 1860, many dance classes opened in St. Petersburg, where they danced mainly the cancan.
Thus, having examined in detail the most popular dances of the 19th century, and having clearly traced the reflection of social life in the dance culture of that time, we can draw a conclusion about the significance of dance in that era. The main task of dance, in our opinion, was to maintain the culture of the body on an equal basis with the culture of the spirit. But unlike earlier eras, body culture did not imply a spiritual, religious basis, and the development of body culture became more and more an end in itself for dancing.

Development of Russian dance culture in the first half of the 20th century.

By the 20th century, there were already about 17 dances in Russia, among them the most popular were: polka, Hungarian, minion, fandango, figured waltz, mazurka and many others. By the 20th century, a lot in dance culture was changing. First of all, the quality of dance performance changes, the basis, the path along which the development of world dance art has taken, changes. After a thousand-year break, the Olympic Games are again becoming extremely popular, and from here there is a rapprochement between dance and sports, and the degree of dynamism of the emerging dances increases: tango, foxtrot, twist, rock and roll.

After the disappearance of balls as a form of mass pastime in the 19th century, restaurants began to partially replace their functions (probably because at balls they not only danced, but also dined). So in the second half of the 19th century, restaurants combined both cuisine and often theater (In Russia, for example, restaurants: “Yar”, “Strelna”, and many others). French restaurants of the late 19th century were famous for their cabaret with its semi-decent female dance, the dancers of which, in our opinion, had much in common with the dancers of Ancient Greece and Rome. The presence of such entertainment and its accessibility had a huge impact on the social life of that period, on the entire dance culture of the early 20th century.

The beginning of the 20th century in dance culture can be characterized by the words: “in search of style,” since at that time everything old was destroyed, and the new was foggy and unclear. And in determining the style of this era, dance played a significant role, because, in our opinion, it reflected the aesthetic aspirations of its century with extraordinary brightness; it was a kind of bridge between the world of everyday life and the world of fantasy. The turning point in the political life of the early 20th century entailed a turning point in the creative life of this period. This could not but be reflected in the dance. A real revolution in the dance life of this period was the appearance of the tango dance. Tango was a ballroom, salon dance, and not a pop dance. To perform this dance, an impeccable tailcoat and a stylish, fitted dress were required, since this dance was very strict in nature and no liberties were allowed. A tango dancer resembled a tightly stretched bowstring, with stable facial expressions and maximum body immobility. This is the main difference between tango and previous dances, which invariably involved running, jumping, bouncing, in general, everything that brought the body out of its restrained state.

Tango was based on a rhythmic move, which, in our opinion, was the reason for the great popularity of this dance, since now everyone could dance, even those who could not “jump like a goat” around the hall before. Thus, we can conclude that tango determined the style of the entire dance culture of the first half of the 20th century.

The 20th century continues...

Tired old dances, a changing social climate, the desire of young people to find and realize their own style, different from others - all this led to the extraordinary growth of various directions of dance culture in the 20th century. We can say that in the 20th century, dancing first acquired such an unprecedented scope and turned into a mass form of leisure. And even the most popular balls of the 19th century cannot, in our opinion, compare with such a powerful dance “epidemic” that overtook us in the 20th century. Rap, hip-hop, breakdancing, rave, house, techno, trance are just a small part of the trends that swept the whole world in the second half of the 20th century.

Plato also said: “The nature of all young creatures is fiery and therefore is not able to remain calm either in the body or in the head, but constantly screams and jumps about randomly.” In our opinion, these words can best be attributed to the description of the spirit of dance culture of the late 20th century. In general, the spirit of this time is characterized by temperament and dynamism. And now we can say with confidence that most modern dances have grown into sports. This, of course, is also connected with the spirit of the times; it is not for nothing that sports and the Olympic Games received their rebirth in the 20th century. Another important factor in the rapprochement of dance and sports for women was, in our opinion, a change in beauty standards. Well-fed beauties of the 19th century are being replaced by thin models. Many women, girls dancing at discos, or attending training in any dance studio, pursue primarily the goal of correcting their figure and losing weight.
As for young people, the main criterion when choosing dances here was freedom and the possibility of self-expression. One of the dances that best provided this freedom to young people was hip-hop.

Modern hip-hop includes three directions: rap, breakdancing and graffiti. It requires a special style of clothing and a special worldview. This dance is accessible to everyone; in our opinion, it helps teenagers transform their aggression into creativity.

Another dance that helps relieve nervous tension is the rave. It is believed that even the Indians, after being stung by a scorpion, began a dance similar to modern dances, which lasted for several hours until they were completely exhausted. This method brought recovery. We see something similar in rave. Rave (translated from English as “fury, bustle, mess”) was born in Holland in 1985. Initially, rave was aimed at those who use drugs. Many different styles of music appeared in rave; rave dance very quickly absorbed much of what existed before this trend.

The most famous styles are “trance”, “techno”, “house”, “Deep house”...

“Trance” is cosmic music with smooth movements and the desire to gently come out of your own shell.
“Techno” - here the movements are rigid, fixed, there are a lot of impulses on the arms and legs, all movements are wide and clearly defined.
“House” - there are no clear, sharp movements in it, they are more blurred; the music is physiological, the whole rhythm is designed for body movements. This dance allows for great improvisation.

And of course, speaking about the end of the 20th century, we cannot fail to mention such a trend in dance culture as breakdancing. In essence, breakdancing is a fusion of dance, pantomime, wrestling, and boxing. Correct, in our opinion, is the opinion that breaking develops not only the body, but also character. It requires enormous stamina and patience, as most elements of the break need to be repeated many times. It is believed that the break was born on the New York pavements, and its creators were two warring factions that one day got tired of fighting each other with firearms and knives and preferred to compete in unimaginable dance steps. This is probably why breaking was originally based on various types of wrestling - karate, kung fu, boxing. Gradually, smooth movements of the arms and legs were added to them. Everyone, trying to become the best, added more and more complex acrobatic elements. We can assume that it looked something like this: two groups lined up, specially dressed for fighting, but without weapons, then the music was turned on and the break began. The winners were those who were more resilient, dexterous, fast and flexible. Gradually this dance attracted the attention of choreographers. The break itself is performed either on the floor (somersaults, various turns on the back), or close to the floor, and breakdancing also includes various wave-like movements of the arms and torso.

Thus, having examined several of the most striking, in our opinion, dance styles, we, using the example of these dances, can draw a conclusion about the uniqueness of the artistic culture of the late 20th century. You, of course, noticed that the most characteristic features of the artistic culture of this period were freedom and desire and self-expression, as well as originality, the search for something new and unusual.

In general, the end of the 20th century represents, in our opinion, enormous potential for the development of artistic culture in all its directions and in dance in particular.

In no historical era, in any country in the world, has anyone extolled dance as much as the ancient Greeks, who saw in it “the unity of mental and physical beauty” and considered dance a wonderful gift of the gods. And the ancient Greek deities themselves enjoyed dancing. It was believed that Apollo himself, the god of Art, wrote the first rules of the art of dance. The ancient Greeks were so sensitive to dance that they made the muse Terpsichore “responsible” for the art of dancing and began to depict her as a dancing girl in a light tunic with an olive in her hands. Homer argued that there are three most innocent pleasures in the world - sleep, love and dancing. Plato: “Dancing develops strength, flexibility and beauty.” Dancing was a compulsory subject in gymnasiums, and a free citizen who did not know how to dance was subject to ridicule and condemnation. The poses and movements in the dance should be beautiful and harmonious, in addition, the dance should clearly express the mood, thoughts and feelings.

Sacred dances were performed to the sounds of the lyre and were distinguished by their austere beauty. Holidays and dances were dedicated to different gods: Dionysus, goddess Aphrodite, Athena. They reflected certain days of the working calendar year. Dances in honor of the Greek god of fertility and winemaking, Dionysus, were characterized by uncontrollable riotous joy. Dionysia was celebrated in the spring, when nature came to life.

For the first time in the history of dance, a treatise was written about the art of ancient Greek dance - a study on this type of creativity. The author of the treatise, Lucian, reflected on the role and significance of dance in human life, spoke about the requirements that are presented to a person who decides to devote himself to the art of dancing. “The art of dancing requires an ascent to the highest levels of all sciences: not only music, but also rhythm, geometry and especially philosophy, both natural and moral... A dancer needs to know everything!” .

Military dances played a major role in instilling courage, patriotism, and a sense of duty among youth in Ancient Greece. Usually they were performed by two people, but there were such mass pyrrhs in which only young men danced, and sometimes their partners danced with them. These dances reproduced the battle and various military formations. These were complex choreographic compositions. In the hands of the dancers were bows, arrows, shields, swords, spears, darts, and lighted torches.

Stage dancing was part of theatrical performances. Each genre had its own dances. During the dances, the performers beat time with their feet. To do this, they wore special wooden or iron sandals, and sometimes beat the beat with their hands using peculiar castanets - oyster shells - placed on their middle fingers.

Each genre of Greek theater had its own dances. In tragedies, the choir performed emmelei - a dance consisting of pathetic, majestic, noble movements. This dance conveyed the feelings of gods and heroes. In comedies, the most common dance was the kordak, the dance of satyrs (satirs are fantastic creatures with goat legs and horns). It was a fast dance, temperamental, replete with dizzying, almost circus-like jumps, somersaults and relaxed poses. The movements were performed at a rapid pace and consisted of squats, rotations, jumps, during which you had to hit your buttocks with your heels. It was performed only by professional, specially trained dancers.

The attitude towards dance in Ancient Greece is evidenced by the fact that the muse of dance and choral singing Terpsichore was included in the pantheon of deities. The Greeks understood dance very broadly, considering it both as gymnastics, a means of healing the body, and as a mimic art. The dances included the procession of the playwright Sophocles at the head of a procession of naked youths through Athens after the victory at Salamis, juggling and acrobatics, military drill, funeral and wedding processions and measured, strictly simultaneous gestures and movements of the choir in tragedy.

The need for dance is determined by the very nature of man, his internal rhythms, but the Greeks also strived for ideal beauty, which was achieved through stylization. An example is the war dance (pyrrhic), described by Homer and known from surviving reliefs and vase paintings. Another example, also from Homer, is a funeral dance, the purpose of which is to breathe new life into a dead body through a burst of physical activity of the dancers. This dance comes from the island of Crete and is characterized by sharp movements of the arms and rhythmic strikes of swords on shields to scare away evil spirits.

Since the Greeks believed that dance was gifted to people by the gods, they showed great interest in esoteric cults in which dance played a significant role. In addition to orgiastic dances associated with certain rituals, the ancient Greeks loved solemn processions, especially paeans, which were a kind of rhythmically organized procession in honor of a particular deity with the singing of solemn hymns. The big festival was Thesmophoria - in honor of the goddess of agriculture Demeter and her daughter Persephone. Dancing played an important role in the Orphic and Eleusinian mysteries.

Orgiastic dances in honor of the god of fertility Dionysus gradually developed into a specific ceremony - Dionysia. Dancers who portrayed maenads and dancers who portrayed satyrs were specially trained for them; according to myth, this was the retinue of Dionysus. The common dance - the dithyramb, performed in Dionysian festivals, became the source of ancient Greek tragedy.

Dance, which developed within the framework of ancient Greek tragedy, has several periods corresponding to different stages of development of dramaturgy itself. For Aeschylus, dance is a means of increasing the tension of dramatic action. Sophocles interprets dance as an expression of emotional response to unfolding events. In Euripides, the chorus uses pantomime to depict feelings that correspond to the plot. The dance as part of the tragedy (emmelia) was quite slow and majestic, and the gestures in it (chironomia) were wide, large, easily perceived by the public in large arenas where tragedies were staged. The dance in the old comedy was called kordak and was, in accordance with the spirit of the performance, unbridled and indecent. The dancer twisted his stomach, hit his heels and buttocks, jumped, hit his chest and thighs, stomped his feet and even hit his partner. Sikinnis, a dance of satyrs, rich in acrobatic elements, surpassed the kordak in outright shamelessness. With the spread of Christianity, both dances disappeared.

The favorite entertainment of the ancient Greeks was meals in a friendly circle - symposiums. Professional dancers took part in them. Greek vase paintings depict courtesans (heterae) dancing to the sound of a flute, while spectators watch and even join in the dance.

When riots began in Rome, and the emperor was afraid that an uprising might occur, he ordered three thousand dancers and dancers to take to the streets of the city, who pacified the riot of the crowd with their dances. The dance art of the ancient Greeks had a great influence on the Romans. Only the creative tastes of the Romans were fundamentally different from the tastes of the Greeks. For the Greeks, art and dance were something sacred that ennobled the soul and brought a person closer to the gods. The Romans, more rude and squat, saw art only as entertainment. The dances gradually lost their original severity and purity; they began to increasingly depict and express passion, which did not at all correspond to the high religious purpose of dance in Ancient Greece. However, the ancient Romans knew and honored the name of their first dancer. Of course: after all, he was considered to be Romulus, one of the legendary founders of Rome.

The Romans made a great contribution to the history of world dance as the creators of pantomime. This is a highly stylized sequence of movements, usually by one performer, with the main role played by gesticulation. The pantomime was usually accompanied by a small orchestra. Famous pantomimists were Bafillus from Alexandria, who preferred comedy, and Pylades from Sicily, who gave pantomime tragic pathos. Pantomime as a performance was first performed publicly in the 23rd century. BC. Over time, this art degenerated into an openly erotic and vulgar spectacle, which the Christian church fought against.

Although pantomime prevailed in Ancient Rome, ritual dance was not forgotten there either. There were many dances - processions for different occasions. For example, members of the priestly college of the Salii, priests of the god Mars, performed their cult military dance - tripudii, i.e. dance in three beats. Throughout the Italian peninsula, priests performed rituals associated with ancient fertility cults. Temple rituals of this kind gradually developed into folk holidays. For example, the famous Saturnalia, held at the end of December, became a folk carnival, with dancing in the streets and mutual gift-giving. Subsequently, the spirit of Christian Christmas holidays absorbed many elements of the ancient Roman saturnalia.

So, in the first paragraph of our work we looked at the dances of antiquity. For the Greeks, dance was the unity of soul and body, dance was given to them by the gods. Dancing was a compulsory subject in gymnasiums, and a free citizen who did not know how to dance was subject to ridicule and condemnation. The poses and movements in the dance should be beautiful and harmonious, in addition, the dance should clearly express the mood, thoughts and feelings. The Romans considered dance only entertainment; they began to increasingly depict and express passion. But the Greeks, in turn, introduced pantomime into the ancient dance, which helped stylize the sequence of movements. Over time, the art of pantomime degenerated into an openly erotic and vulgar spectacle, which the Christian church fought against.

Evidence is in sculpture and vase painting, in the works of poets, writers, and artists. Division into participants and spectators, free in their desire - to dance or not to dance, to watch or not to watch. The ritual began to be replaced by the physical and entertainment. The whole life of Greece is permeated with eurythmy. Dancing was one of the educational disciplines, and adults and full-fledged citizens continued to study. Dancing is for spectators, not for the pleasure of jumping and not for your own entertainment. All citizens possessed some dance technique. Five groups: war dances - ritual and educational; cult moderate ones - emmelia, dance of the veils and dances of the caryatids, as well as dances at birth, wedding and funeral; orgiastic dancing; public dances and theatrical dances; dancing in everyday life. Sacred dances reflected certain days of the working calendar year. There are two main dance cults: “light” in honor of the god Apollo and “dark” in honor of the god Dionysus. Military dances in Ancient Greece played a big role in instilling courage, patriotism, and a sense of duty in youth ("pyrrhichion", "pyrrhich") Social and everyday dances (home, city, rural) accompanied family and personal celebrations, city and national holidays. Stage dances Dr.Gr. were part of theatrical performances, and each genre had its own dances: emmelia is characteristic of tragedy, cordak is characteristic of comedy, and sikkanida is characteristic of satirical drama. Dance of the veils and dance of the caryatids. Sikkanida Kubiki - acrobatic dances. Mina mima.

Dance technique of H. Limon.

Jose Arcadio Limon was born on January 12, 1908 in the Mexican city of Culiacan and was the eldest of twelve children in the family. In 1915, at the age of 7, he emigrated with his parents to the United States, to Los Angeles.

After graduating from Lincoln High School, Limon entered the University of California at Los Angeles to study fine arts. In 1928 he moved to New York, where he began studying at the New York School of Design. In 1929, after seeing Rudolf von Laban's students Harold Kretzberg and Yvonne Giorgi perform, Limón became interested in dance.

Having started studying at the school of Doris Humphrey] and Charles Weidman], a year later he made his debut on Broadway. At the same time, Limon first tried his hand as a choreographer: he staged “Etude in D Minor” for himself and Laetitia Ide; the “extras” were his classmates Eleanor King and Ernestina Stoddel.

Throughout the 1930s, Lemon danced with the Humphrey-Weidman troupe, participating in productions by Doris Humphrey and Charles Weidman, and also worked on Broadway: in 1932-1933 he performed in the revue Americana and in the musical by Irving Berlin As Thousands Cheer(choreography by Charles Weidman), collaborated as a choreographer with the New Amsterdam Theater.

In 1937, Lemon participated in the Bennington Dance Festival program. At the 1939 festival, held at Mills College, he created his first major choreographic work, Mexican Dances ( Danzas Mexicanas).

The following year, Lemon performed as a soloist in the revue “Don’t Walk on Lawns” (choreography by George Balanchine).

In 1941, he left the Humphrey-Weidman troupe to collaborate with May O'Donnell]. Together they staged works such as War Lyrics And Curtain Riser, however, he then returned to Humphrey and Weidman. Around this time he met Pauline Lawrence and they married on October 3, 1942. That same year, together with Mary-Ellen Moylan, Lemon danced in the musical Rosalind (choreographed by George Balanchine), which became the last show on Broadway with his participation.

Then he created numbers on classical music and on folklore themes at the Studio Theater, until in April 1943 he was drafted into the US Army Special Service], created in 1940 specifically to maintain the soldier’s spirit during the war. During his service, he collaborated with composers such as Frank Loesser and Alex North], and created several productions, the most famous of which is Concert Grasso.

After completing his military service in 1946, Limón received American citizenship.

In 1947, Limón created his own troupe, the José Limón Dance Company ( José Limón Dance Company), the artistic direction of which he offered to Doris Humphrey (thus, Limon's troupe became the first US modern dance company whose artistic director was not at the same time its founder). The troupe, whose dancers included Paolina Kohner, Lucas Howing, Betty Jones, Ruth Carrier and Limón José himself, made their Bennington College Festival debut in productions by Doris Humphrey Lament And The Story of Mankind.

Dancer and choreographer Louis Falco also danced with the company between 1960-1970, and in 1974-1975. performed in "The Moor's Pavane" directed by Jose Limon together with Rudolf Nureyev. While working with Humphrey, Lemon developed a repertoire and laid down the principles of his own style. In 1947, the troupe made its debut at New York's Belasco Theater with Humphrey's production of Day on Earth. In 1948, the troupe first performed at the Connecticut College American Dance Festival, and subsequently took part in it for many years. After staging "The Moor's Pavane", Limón received Dance Magazine's annual award for outstanding choreography. In the spring of 1950, Limon and his troupe performed in Paris with Page Ruth, becoming the first representatives of American modern dance in Europe. During Limon's life, his troupe toured the whole world and continued its activities after his death.

In 1951, Limon joined the faculty of the Juilliard School, where a new direction of dance was created. He also accepted an invitation from the National Institute of Fine Arts of Mexico City, for which he created six productions. Between 1953 and 1956, Limon choreographed and performed the roles in the show Ruins and Visions And Ritmo Jondo Doris Humphrey. In 1954, Limon's troupe became one of the first to take advantage of the US State Department's International Student Exchange Program and toured South America. They soon embarked on a five-month tour of Europe, the Middle East, and, again, South and Central America. During this time, Lemon received his second Dance Magazine Award.

In 1958, Doris Humphrey, who had been the artistic director of the troupe for all these years, died, and Jose Limon had to take his place himself. Between 1958 and 1960 there were joint productions with Poalina Koner. During this time, Lemon received an honorary doctorate from Wesleyan University. In 1962, the troupe performed in Central Park to open the New York Shakespeare Festival. The following year, under the auspices of the US State Department, the troupe made a twelve-week trip to the Far East, performing in the production The Deamon, the musical accompaniment of which belonged to the composer Paul Hindemith. Hindemith personally conducted the premiere.

In 1964, Limón received the company's award Capezio and was appointed artistic director of the American Dance Theater at Lincoln Center. The following year, Limón appeared on a national educational television program called José Limón Dance Theatre. A few years later, he founded the Jose Limon Dance Foundation, and received another honorary doctorate from the University of North Carolina. In 1966, after performing with the troupe at the Washington Cathedral, Limón received a government grant of $23,000 from the National Endowment for the Arts. The following year, Limón worked on choreography for the production Psalm, which earned him an honorary doctorate from Colby College. He and his troupe were also invited to perform at the White House for President Lyndon Johnson and King Hassan II of Morocco. José Limón's last stage appearance as a dancer was in 1969, when he performed in the Brooklyn Academy of Music productions of The Traitor and The Moor's Pavane. In the same year, he completed two more works and received an honorary doctorate from Oberlin College.