Measurement of the longitudinal dimensions of the body. Measurement of longitudinal, transverse dimensions of the body Determination of weight - body mass

ANTHROPOMETRY

(measurement of weight, body length, circumference of the head, chest, shoulder, hip) with an assessment of physical development according to percentile tables

A correct assessment of the physical status of a child is impossible without regular measurements and precise adherence to the anthropometry technique.

Method for measuring body length while standing

(children over one year old)

Body length (height) is one of the main indicators of overall body size and bone length.

Body length is determined using a vertical stadiometer with a folding stool or a movable anthropometer. Anthropometry is carried out in the morning, shoes and socks should be removed. It is acceptable to leave thin tight socks or stockings.

Equipment:

Vertical stadiometer;

Disposable paper napkin;

Paper, pen.

Preparation for the procedure: explain to the mother / relatives the purpose of the study, obtain the consent of the mother. Prepare the necessary equipment.

Throw away the "bench" of the height meter. Treat the bottom platform with a disinfectant. Lay a disposable napkin on the bottom platform.

Execution of the procedure: raise the movable bar of the height meter, after removing the shoes. Help the child to stand correctly on the platform of the stadiometer, holding relaxed arms along the body:

a) establish 4 points of contact: heels, buttocks, interscapular region, back of the head;

b) position the head so that the outer corner of the eye and the tragus of the ear are located on the same horizontal line;

c) lower the movable bar of the height meter (without pressure) to the child's head until it touches the apex point;

d) determine the length of the body along the lower edge of the bar (on the right division scale).

Completion of the procedure.

Help the child get off the stadiometer and take readings. Write down the result. Report the result to the child/mother. Remove the napkin from the stadiometer. Wipe the bottom platform of the stadiometer with a disinfectant.

Measuring the body length of children from 1 year to 3 years can be carried out with the same height meter and according to the same rules, only the child is not placed on the lower platform, but on a folding bench and the growth is counted on the left scale.

Sitting body length of children over two years old is measured when he sits on a stool, straightening his back and pressing against the scale with the region of the sacrum, the back in the interscapular space and the back of the head. His head is in the same position as when measuring the length of the body while standing, the legs should be bent at the knee joints at a right angle. Height is determined using a movable bar on a scale for measuring height while sitting.

Method for measuring body length in children of the first year

life

In young children, body length is measured in the supine position using a horizontal stadiometer.

Equipment:

Horizontal stadiometer;

Rubber gloves;

Diaper;

- a container with a disinfectant solution, rags;

Paper, pen.

Preparation for the procedure: Explain to the mother/relatives the purpose of the study. Obtain consent for the procedure.

Install the horizontal height meter on a flat, stable surface with the scale facing you. Prepare the necessary equipment.

Wash and dry hands, put on gloves.

Treat the working surface of the stadiometer with a disinfectant solution using a rag.

Lay a diaper on (it should not cover the scale and interfere with the movement of the movable bar).

Required condition: measurements are taken by two people. The researcher is on the right side of the child.

Execution of the procedure:at lay the child on the stadiometer with his head to the fixed bar. Wipe the working surface of the horizontal stadiometer with a disinfectant.

The assistant holds the child's head in a horizontal position so that the upper edge of the tragus of the ear and the lower edge of the orbit are in the same plane perpendicular to the board of the stadiometer. The parietal part of the child's head should be in close contact with the fixed vertical bar of the height meter, arms extended along the body.

Straighten the baby's legs by lightly pressing the left hand on the baby's knees. With your right hand, move the movable bar of the height meter bent at a right angle to the plantar side of the child's feet. On the scale, determine the length of the child's body.

Carefully remove the child from the height rod. Write down the result. Report the result to mom.

Remove the diaper from the stadiometer. Wash and dry hands.

Estimation of the measured indicator of body length is carried out by comparing it with the percentile tables of Mazurin and Vorontsov or percentile curves of body length and weight (Fig. 1 and 2). It is possible to estimate by the degree of deviation from the average values (standard sigmal deviation coefficient) separately for boys and girls.

Body length percentile tables. When assessed, length readings ranging from the 25th to the 75th percentile are indicative of average physical development for a given age and gender; length indicators in the range from 25 to 3 percentile and from 75 to 97 percentile correspond to the level of physical development below and above the average, respectively; and indicators of body length below the 10th percentile and above the 90th percentile characterize low and high physical development, respectively (Table 1).

Percentile Growth Curves. Assessment of the level of physical development according to the percentile curves of height and weight (Fig. 1 and 2) is assessed by comparing the age (lower scale) and the height or weight of the child (side scale).

Figure 1. Weight and height percentile curves for girls.

Figure 2. Weight and height percentile curves for boys.

Table 1

Values of body length percentiles in boys and girls aged

from 1 to 18 years old *

Age, years	Height, cm
boys	Girls
Percentiles	Percentiles
5th	10th	25th	50th	75th	90th	95th	5th	10th	25th	50th	75th	90th	95th
	71,7	72,8	74,3	76,1	77,7	79,8	81,2	69,8	70,8	72,4	74,3	76,3	78,0	79,1
	82,5	83,5	85,3	86,8	89,2	92,0	94,4	81,6	82,1	84,0	86,8	89,3	92,0	93,6
	89,0	90,3	92,6	94,9	97,5	100,1	102,0	88,3	89,3	91,4	94,1	96,6	99,0	100,6
	95,8	97,3	100,0	102,9	105,7	108,2	109,9	95,0	96,4	98,8	101,6	104,3	106,6	108,3
	102,0	103,7	106,5	109,9	112,8	115,4	117,0	101,1	102,7	105,4	108,4	111,4	113,8	115,6
	107,7	109,6	112,5	116,1	119,2	121,9	123,5	106,6	108,4	111,3	114,6	118,1	120,8	122,7
	113,0	115,0	118,0	121,7	125,0	127,9	129,7	111,8	113,6	116,8	120,6	124,4	127,6	129,5
	118,1	120,2	123,2	127,0	130,5	133,6	135,7	116,9	118,7	122,2	126,4	130,6	134,2	136,2
	122,9	125,2	128,2	132,2	136,0	139,4	141,8	122,1	123,9	127,7	132,2	136,7	140,7	142,9
	127,7	130,1	133,4	137,5	141,6	145,5	148,1	127,5	129,5	133,6	138,3	142,9	147,2	149,5
	132,6	135,1	138,7	143,3	147,8	152,1	154,9	133,5	135,6	140,0	144,8	149,3	153,7	156,2
	137,6	140,3	144,4	149,7	154,6	159,4	162,3	139,8	142,3	147,0	151,5	155,8	160,0	162,7
	142,9	145,8	150,5	156,5	161,8	167,0	169,8	145,2	148,0	152,8	157,1	161.3	165,3	168,1
	148,8	151,8	156,9	163,1	168,5	173,8	176,7	148,7	151,5	155,9	160,4	164,6	168,7	171,3
	155,2	158,2	163,3	169,0	174,1	178,9	181,9	150,5	153,2	157,2	161,8	166,3	170,5	172,8
	161,1	163,9	168,7	173,5	178,1	182,4	185,4	151,6	154,1	157,8	162,4	166,9	171,1	173,3
	164,9	167,7	171,9	176,2	180,5	184,4	187,3	152,7	155,1	158,7	163,1	167,3	171,2	173,5

Note.* Filed by Growth and Development. // Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. / Eds. Nelson W.E., Behrman R.E., Kliegman R.M., Arvin A.M. - Philadelphia, 1996. - P. 50-52.

Body weight measurement (under 2 years of age)

Body weight is one of the most important and at the same time the easiest parameter to measure, it allows us to talk about the harmony of the physique, it is determined using floor medical scales.

Required condition: Weigh the child on an empty stomach, at the same time, after the act of defecation.

Equipment:

Electronic scales for weighing children weighing up to 15 kg;

Rubber gloves;

Container with disinfectant solution, rags;

Paper and pen.

Preparation for the procedure: explain to the mother/relatives the purpose of the procedure. Place the balance on a flat, stable surface.

First you need to prepare the scales for work. Treat the removable weighing platform with a disinfectant solution using a rag. Wash and dry hands.

On the front panel of scales there is a six-digit digital indicator, the button "T" and other buttons. On the right side wall is a power switch. First, you should check that the power cord is connected to the network, then you need to press the power switch - while the numbers on the digital indicator are displayed sequentially from “888888” to “000000”. After 15 sec. the indicator “0.000” is set on the display - the scales are ready for work.

Execution of the procedure:

Put a diaper on the platform, wait for the points on the indicator to stop flashing and press the “T” button (the mass of the diaper is recorded in memory). Holding the child's head, lay him on the platform. After 15 sec. the weight of the child will be displayed on the digital indicator.

Carefully remove the child from the scales, while the weight indicator remains fixed for another 35-40 seconds. Before the expiration of this time, you can remove the mass indicator (zero) by pressing the "T" button. When the scales are overloaded, the symbol “H” is displayed on the display.

Completion of the procedure: with tell your mom the results.

Remove the diaper from the scale. Wipe the working surface of the scales with a disinfectant. Remove gloves, wash and dry hands.

To assess physical development, anthropometric measurement data (height, weight, dimensions of individual parts of the body, etc.) are mainly used.

Measuring the growth of children in the first year of life . The measurement is made with a special stadiometer in the form of a wide board 80 cm long and 40 cm wide. Divisions in centimeters are applied on one side of the board. At its beginning there is a fixed transverse bar. At the end of the scale there is a movable transverse bar, which can be easily moved along the centimeter scale.

The legs should be straightened by light pressure of the left hand on the knees; right hand bring the movable bar of the stadiometer tightly to the soles of the straightened legs.

The distance between the movable and fixed bars correspond to the growth of the child. The accuracy of such measurements is ± 0.5 cm.

Measuring the growth of older children. The measurement is made by a height meter, which is a wooden board 2 m 10 cm long, 8 - 10 cm wide and 50x75 cm thick. 2 division scales (in cm) are applied on the vertical board: one (right) for standing growth, the other (left) for measuring body length while sitting. A bar 20 cm long slides along it. At a level of 40 cm from the floor, a folding bench is attached to a vertical board for measuring height while sitting.

Weigh the children from the moment of birth up to 2-3 years on pan scales with a maximum allowable load of up to 20 kg (Fig. 23.3). Scales consist of a tray and a balance beam with two division scales: the lower one is in kilograms, the upper one is in hundredths of a kilogram. The balance beam has a counterweight. If the balance is not balanced, you should carefully turn the washer (microscrew) on the counterweight towards you or away from you, focusing on the balance indicators.

Weighing technique: first weigh the diaper. The child is placed on the wide part of the tray with his head and shoulder girdle, legs - on the narrow part of the tray. If the child can be seated, then he is seated with his buttocks on the wide part of the tray, legs on the narrow part. You can put the child on the scales and take them off only when the balance arms are closed, facing the scale of the scales. The weight readings are taken from the side of the weight where there are notches or notches. After recording the weight, the weights are set to zero, and the balance beam is on the fuse. To determine the weight of the child, subtract the weight of the diaper from the scale readings. Weighing accuracy ±10 mg.

Head circumference measure with a centimeter tape, which is carried out behind through the most prominent point of the occiput, and in front - along the superciliary arches (Fig. 23.5).

The size of a large fontanel in infants is determined by measuring the distance from the middle of one of its four sides to the other, opposite, but not diagonally (from corner to corner).

To measure the height of the head, an anthropometer or a special compass is used, one end of which is placed on the top of the head, and the other on the most prominent part of the chin.

To characterize the physical development of a child, an assessment of the characteristics of his chest and abdomen, as well as the ratio of circumferences, is of great importance.

chest circumference measured at rest (Figure 23.6). The tape is applied behind the angles of the shoulder blades, and in front - along the areola. In pubertal girls, the tape is drawn in front along the fourth rib. Measurement in children of the first year of life is carried out in the prone position, and in older children - standing (hands down, calm breathing).

The measurement of the chest is carried out at the height of inhalation, with full exhalation and with calm breathing.

In order to measure the anteroposterior and transverse diameters of the chest, a special compass is used. When measuring the anteroposterior diameter, one leg of the compass is placed at the lower end of the body of the sternum, and the other at the same level at the spinous process of the spine. To determine the transverse diameter of the legs of the compass, set along the midaxillary line at the level of the lower edge of the sternum.

Abdominal circumference measured at the level of the umbilicus. If the abdomen is significantly enlarged, the measuring tape is carried out in the area of \u200b\u200bits largest protrusion. The circumference of the abdomen in a healthy child should be measured before meals (the measurement of the abdomen is not of great importance for assessing the state of the child's physical development). In a sick child, such repeated measurement may be necessary in the presence of diseases in which changes occur in the volume of the abdomen (ascites, tumors, flatulence, etc.)

torso length determined by the distance from the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra to the tip of the coccygeal bone. In young children, the measurement of the torso is carried out in the supine position on the side, in older children - in the standing position: when measuring, the centimeter tape should be tightly applied to the surface of the back.

Limb measurement. The length of the limbs is measured with a Martin anthropometer, and in his absence, with an ordinary centimeter tape.

arm length measured from the acromion to the end of the third finger; shoulder length - from the acromion to the top of the elbow joint; forearm length - from the elbow joint to the middle of the wrist.

Shoulder circumference determined by the area of greatest development of the biceps muscle (upper third of the shoulder). The measurement is carried out twice: first with a freely lowered arm and relaxed muscles, and then with a tense state of the muscles. The child is asked to raise his arm to shoulder level, and, bending it at the elbow, tighten the muscles as much as possible.

Leg length measured from the greater trochanter of the thigh to the level of the sole; thigh length - from the greater trochanter to the knee joint; leg length - from the knee joint to the ankle. Thigh circumference is measured approximately at the level of the crotch at the widest part of the thigh; the measuring tape is carried out horizontally directly under the gluteal fold.

Calf circumference determined on the calf muscles, at the level of their greatest volume.

23.2. Assessment of the physical development of children of different ages.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines the physical development of a child as a summary indicator of the health status of an individual child and population, and indicators of the physical development of young children as a criterion for assessing the socio-economic development of a particular region, country. Monitoring of the physical development of young children is considered by WHO to be one of the most effective measures taken by health workers to reduce the mortality and morbidity rates of young children. Assessment of the physical development of a child under 3 years old is carried out on the basis of the "Growth Standards", which were developed by WHO in 2006 and are recommended as an international standard for the physical development of a child in all countries, regardless of ethnicity, socio-economic status and type of nutrition. These norms (standards) of the physical development of young children must be used:

To medical workers: as an effective tool for screening the physical development of young children for the timely detection of deviations from the norm and diseases, counseling parents, prescribing, if necessary, the necessary examination and treatment;

To healthcare organizers: as a tool to justify the need to develop state and regional programs aimed at realizing the child's right to normal physical development, support for breastfeeding, ensuring rational nutrition, increasing accessibility and quality medical care children and mothers;

To parents: as a tool that allows the family, together with medical professionals, to more effectively monitor the physical development of the child, understand the importance and necessity of following recommendations on feeding and nutrition, and seek medical help in a timely manner.

Assessment of physical development is carried out at each mandatory medical preventive examination of the child. The nurse performs anthropometric measurements (weighing, measuring length / height and head circumference). The data obtained are applied to the corresponding physical development charts, which are filled out separately for boys and girls. This makes it possible to see the trend of the child's physical development over a certain period of time and to identify problems of physical development. It is also necessary to pay attention to the dynamics of indicators over the period of observation of the child.

Assessment of the physical development of older children is also carried out on the basis of the results of anthropometric studies, by comparing the individual indicators of the child with the normative ones. To do this, use the method of approximate calculations according to empirical formulas and the method of anthropometric standards. The method of tentative calculations according to empirical formulas is based on knowledge of the basic patterns of weight gain and growth, head and chest circumferences. It should be noted that this method gives only an approximate picture of the physical development of the child and is rarely used by pediatricians.

The method of anthropometric standards is accurate, since individual anthropometric values are compared with normative values according to the age and sex of the child. There are regional tables of standards of two types: sigma (parametric) and centile (non-parametric).

Sigma standards method. The essence of this method is to compare the obtained indicators for each trait with the average (standard) data developed on the basis of mass anthropometric surveys of children of different ages. The results of comparison of anthropometric data with the standard ones make it possible to evaluate each feature separately.

A significant disadvantage of this method is that each attribute is evaluated separately, without interrelation with other indicators.

Centile standards method. The essence of the method is as follows: all measurement results of one attribute are arranged in ascending gradation in the form of an ordered series. This ordered series, covering the entire range of fluctuations of the trait, is divided into 100 intervals. Hits in them have equal probabilities, but the ranges of such centile intervals in absolute units of measurement are not the same. The central trend of the ordered series is the fiftieth centile - the median. Usually, not all 100, but only 7 fixed centiles are given to characterize the distribution: 3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, 97th.

The intervals between centile probabilities are called centile intervals (corridors). This method is not mathematical and therefore better characterizes the variational series in biology and in particular in medicine. It is quite easy to use, does not require calculations, fully allows you to assess the relationship between various anthropometric indicators and therefore is widely used in the world. In the vast majority of cases, deviations from the standard growth rates of body weight and length/height indicate health problems and require a thorough analysis of the situation with the application of appropriate measures.

test questions

1. Anthropometric measurements and features of their implementation in children of different ages.

2. Features of the assessment of the physical development of children of different ages.

To measure body length while standing, a vertical scale with a measurement accuracy of 0.1 cm is used with a transverse rail moving along it, which can be applied to the head to determine the extreme upper point of the body - the “apical” one. The device, consisting of a fixed vertical scale and a movable horizontal bar, was called a height meter (Fig. 8.13).

For the correct measurement of body length, a number of requirements must be met.

The person being measured with bare feet stands on the horizontal platform of the stadiometer with his back to its vertical stand with freely lowered arms, well-shifted feet and maximally extended knees, touching the stadiometer stand with five points: heels, calves of the lower leg, buttocks, back surface between the shoulder blades and the back of the head. This position must be given in order to smooth out the effect of stoop on the length of the body. The head of the measured is set so that the lower edge of the orbit is in the same horizontal plane with the center of the external auditory opening. It should be ensured that the person being measured does not stretch upward and does not bend his knees. When measuring the length of the body of female subjects, it is necessary to ensure that the transverse bar does not touch the hairstyle, but the head. After giving the subject the posture described above, the transverse rail of the anthropometer or the sliding bar of the stadiometer is lowered to the highest point of the head and measurements are made with an accuracy of a millimeter.

Here it is appropriate to cite the remark of the Swiss anthropologist R. Martin, who wrote that the exact determination of the standing body length requires maximum attention from the researcher, since many comparative calculations are made to the body length, that is, they are expressed as a percentage of the individual body length. Such research loses all value if the length of the body is determined incorrectly.

Recommendations for measuring the body length of children. The length of the body of children should be measured with the body stretched out. One examiner presses the child's heels to the floor; the other takes the child with both hands under the mastoid processes and gently presses upward, indicating to the child that he should stretch as high as possible. This technique eliminates or reduces daily fluctuations in body length, which otherwise can be pronounced (from 1.5 to 3.5 cm). When measuring adult subjects, these manipulations are not necessary, since due to muscle tension, fluctuations can be smoothed out!

Note. In the absence of a stadiometer and an anthropometer, an accurate measurement of body length can be made using a centimeter tape and a right-angled drawing triangle. The tape is fastened with buttons along the plumb line to the door jamb without a plinth, the drawing triangle serves as a transverse bar, measurements are made as usual.

Sitting body length measurement (torso, neck and head length). The person being measured sits on the stool of the stadiometer (Fig. 8.14), touching its vertical bar with the buttocks, back at the level of the shoulder blades and the back of the head. It is necessary to ensure that the legs are closed, the head is in the position described above. Measurements are made as described above. When measuring body length while sitting with an anthropometer, the latter is installed on a stool, on which the person being measured sits with a straight back.

Note. In the absence of an anthropometer and height meter, the measurement can be carried out using a centimeter tape, which is fixed along the wall or door jamb so that the “zero” is located strictly at the level of the stool seat. The rest of the measurements are made as described earlier.

Measurement of the length of the arm and its segments. The measured is in the position of the main anthropometric stand, the height of the shoulder point above the level of the floor or shield on which the subject stands, and the height of the tip of the middle finger of the examined hand above the same level are determined; arm length is equal to the difference between these values. Shoulder length is measured with an anthropometer from the shoulder point to the radius at the upper edge of the head of the radius. The true arm length is equal to the difference between the measured values. The length of the forearm is measured from the radial point to the styloid - at the distal end of the radius. The length of the hand is measured from the styloid point to the finger point at the end of the third finger.

Measuring the length of the leg and its segments. Measurement of the length of the lower limb is difficult because it is difficult to accurately determine the proximal point from which measurements should be taken. In this regard, the authors propose to define the upper point in different ways. French anthropologists take the top of the greater trochanter as the starting point for measurement, German anthropologists take the upper anterior iliac spine. R. Martin proposes to determine the length of the lower limb from the anterior iliac spine to the sole (floor), and subtract 5 cm from the result for men and 4 cm for women. Undoubtedly, the data obtained in this way cannot be accurate , since the distance from the superior anterior iliac spine to the femoral head is subject to sharp individual fluctuations.

The Moscow Commission on Anthropology recommended determining the length of the lower limb from the upper edge of the pubic symphysis. Sometimes the length of the lower limb is defined as the difference between the length of the body standing and sitting. The length of the leg, determined in this way, is somewhat less than its true anatomical length, since the acetabulum is higher than the seat.

All of the above methods for determining the length of the lower limb do not give its true dimensions, corresponding to the skeletal ones. The most accurate method was proposed by K.Z. Yatsuta, who found that the upper edge of the femoral head corresponds to a point midway from the superior anterior
iliac spine to the middle of the symphysis (Fig. 8.15). This point was called "groin".

Due to the fact that several methods have been proposed for determining the length of the lower limb, it is always necessary to indicate how its length was determined, otherwise the material will not be comparable. It is advisable to determine the length of the lower limb with an anthropometer from the inguinal point to the floor or shield on which the person being measured stands. The measurement of the length of the thigh is made by an anthropometer from the inguinal point proximally to the upper tibial inner point, which, with the knee extended, is located the highest. To determine this point, it is necessary to slightly bend the knee and feel the joint space of the knee joint from the inside, a fingernail is placed on the most protruding bone point of the tibia, to which the bar of the measuring instrument is then brought. The measurement of the length of the lower leg is made by an anthropometer from the upper tibial point to the lower tibial point, which is located at the end of the inner ankle and, with straightened legs, occupies the lowest position. The height of the foot is determined from the lower tibial point to the floor or shield on which the measured subject stands (see Fig. 8.13).

The length of the foot is determined by an anthropometer from the calcaneal point to the most protruding forward point of the “end” foot, which is located at the end of the second or first toes.

Measurement of the length of the spine and its sections is carried out with the subject in the main anthropometric stance.

The total length of the spine is measured from the inion point to the tip of the coccyx. First, the anthropometer measures the position of the “inion” point above the floor, then the coccyx. The length of the spinal column is determined by subtracting the second measurement from the result of the first measurement. The length of the cervical spine is measured from the "inion" point to the middle of the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra, that is, the cervical point. The length of the thoracic region is measured from the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra to the upper edge of the spinous process of the XII thoracic vertebra. Length lumbar measured from the upper edge of the spinous process of the XII thoracic vertebra to the lower edge of the spinous process of the V lumbar vertebra, that is, the lumbar point. The length of the sacrococcygeal section is determined from the lower edge of the spinous process of the 5th lumbar vertebra to the top of the coccyx. Often in research, the total length of the movable part of the spine, measured from the "inion" to the lumbar point, is used.

It must always be remembered that due to the presence of natural curves of the spine, its total length is always less than the sum of separately measured sections.

The dimensions of the spine and its sections can be measured with a centimeter tape between the points described above, but the values \u200b\u200bare slightly larger than those obtained using an anthropometer. Therefore, it should always be stated how the figures are obtained.

End of work -

This topic belongs to:

Dorokhov R.N. , Guba V.P. - sports morphology

Dorokhov rn lip v p sports morphology m sportacadempress.. texts.. introduction i structure of scientific and educational..

If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:

What will we do with the received material:

If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

All topics in this section:

The structure of scientific and academic discipline
"Sports Morphology". Sports morphology (from the Greek morphe - form and ... ology), the science of the form, structure and development of the athlete's body. Sports morphology, others

Age features of children of preschool and school age
The morphology of children and adolescents is not only insufficiently described in monographs and manuals, but also insufficiently studied. This is evidenced by bibliographic summaries of works on systems and apparatuses.

Age periodization
Age morphology and the purely practical tasks it solves are unthinkable without a clear knowledge of individual periods of growth and development of individual systems of a person and the body as a whole. This one is especially poignant

Changes in basic indicators in ontogeny
The basic (basic) indicators characterizing a person include body length and weight. According to a number of researchers, body length is hereditarily programmed and depends to a small extent on

Physical Development and Constitutional Diagnosis
What is the fundamental difference between methods for assessing physical development and somatotyping - one of the stages of constitutional diagnosis? Physical development would be more accurate to designate "physical

The development of the doctrine of the human constitution
Modern advances in technology, electronics and high-speed methods of information processing obtained directly during exercise or running are so significant that

A Brief Overview of the Schools of Constitutional Studies
At present, anthropological or merological (MEROLOGY (from the Greek meros - part and ... ology), in anthropology - the study of individual human organs on cadaveric material. Merology is included in

Morphological approach to typology
The morphology of a person and his individuality are, perhaps, two features that unite and separate people, but there is also a third side of this problem - this is typology. According to the features of the ratio

Typing of female faces
For females, there are much fewer evaluation schemes, they mainly work with the scheme of I.B. Galanta (1927). The author identifies 7 types of constitution, grouped into 3 categories, it is emphasized that in

Somatotyping of adolescents
In the late 80s and early 90s, somatotyping schemes for children of middle school age were proposed. The scheme of A. V. Shelaurov was based on the metric assessment of body components, In the main

Characteristics of the body
In terms of size, the trunk is the largest part of the body, which is divided into the cervical, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic regions. Top part torso - neck - has borders behind from the base of the skull to 7

Neck characteristic
In the lower front, the border of the neck is the jugular notch and on the sides of it are the collarbones. They are especially pronounced in men. Behind the border is a line drawn from the acromial processes through from

Characteristics of the limbs
The border of the upper and lower limbs are planes drawn through the centers of the shoulder and hip joints. The central axis of the upper limb with a freely lowered limb

Characteristics of the internal components of the body, their structure and significance in sports activities
The major components of the body (soma) are tissue, fat, muscle, and bone mass, and the body's water content.

The structure of individual tissues
Tendons and ligaments. Force (pull of muscles or external forces) acts on tendons and ligaments in one direction. Therefore, the fibrous plates of the tendons, consisting of fibroblasts (fibrocyto

Fat mass
Fat mass (FM) is the leading component of the physique, which determines appearance person. There are several reasons for including fat mass in the assessment of constitutional type in the leading indicator:

Change in muscle mass under the influence of training
An analysis of the literature and our own observations showed that it is inappropriate to talk about changes in MM in children or people involved in sports, even the same ones. First of all, the means used

Change in bone mass under the influence of training
Most often, such an indicator is used as a change in the latitudinal and longitude indicators of bones, characterizing growth processes. They are determined using a variety of methods and measurements - from

Water in the body
In the human body, it is customary to distinguish three liquid phases - circulating, interstitial and intracellular, which are separated from each other by membranes. Fluid loss during operation occurs due to

Development and formation of body links
Each vertebra develops from several plates in which ossification nuclei are formed. It is important to remember that the vertebral arch and the spinous process are the product of fusion of symmetrical formations right

Chest development
Depends on the location and configuration of the clavicles, ribs, sternum, the size of the substernal (sternocostal) angle, the ratio of the transverse, deep and longitudinal dimensions, the severity of the curvature of the postures

Development of the bones of the girdle of the upper limb
Loads on the upper limb throughout life exceed the range of motion, similar to those for the lower limb. This is especially true for children of primary school age. After puberty

Bones of the free upper limb
The humerus has many ossification nuclei, which are laid in the first months of postnatal development. The basilar nucleus is the nucleus of the body of the humerus, which fuses with

The structure of the skeleton of the lower limb
The lower limb consists of a pelvic girdle and a free lower limb. The foot is laid first in the fetus, which then slows down growth, and the thigh and lower leg increase the intensity of growth.

The main joints and their characteristics
Joint: There are two main features of interest in athletic morphology.

Some problems of adaptation
Before proceeding to the description of adaptation, let us dwell on the basic biological concept of "homeostasis". In a broad biological sense, homeostasis is seen as a process that creates a stable state of health.

The pattern of adaptation to physical activity
Adaptive reactions of the body to physical activity are never limited by their influence on one system, since there is a clearly defined relationship between individual systems.

Information and vital activity of the organism
The vital activity of the body or the performance of a certain work (training) is a constant work of the morphological structures of the body. The number of included in the work with

The concept of reactivity
Reactivity (reaction rate) is usually called the property of an organism to respond with a change in activity to external influences. Reactivity is closely related to the main factors of life: heredity

Effects on the body of physiological and emergency stimuli
Physiological (normal or adequate) are such loads and stimuli, in response to which the body (cell, organ, organ system), biological system increases its specificity.

Irritants in physical culture and sports
A child who has begun to go in for sports is faced with new unusual stimuli at each lesson. At first, the responses are violent, inadequate, but over time they smooth out. F

Changing structures in response to training influences
All stimuli are inherently similar in their effect on the vital activity of the organism, if not in macro-, then in microstructures. The unifying factor is metabolic processes, metabolism, energy and information.

Biorhythms and their characteristics
It is impossible to speak or write about age-related morphology, about sports morphology, tearing it away from the temporal characteristics of the processes occurring in the body. You can't separate space and time

General provisions and basic principles of anthropometry
Anthropometric studies must be carried out according to a unified research methodology adopted in all countries, strictly observing the measurement technique. Deviations from the rules lead to

Contact research methods
The complexity of the shape of the human body requires the use of special measurement methods. Most races

Anthropometric instruments
One of the main methods of anthropological research is anthropometry, that is, the dimensional characteristic of an individual. For human measurements, a number of devices and devices have been created that

The sliding compass goniometer is a combination of a sliding compass and a gravity goniometer
Thanks to the hinged reinforcement, the goniometer can be positioned in any plane, which allows measurements of mobility in all joints. Scoliometer - a device for measuring bending

Anthropometric points
All measurements of the human body are carried out only between certain points, which are called "anthropometric points". The most commonly used points in somatometry are described

Measurement of the transverse dimensions of the body
Measurement of the transverse dimensions of the body is carried out with a thick compass (measurement accuracy 0.5 cm) or the head of the anthropometer, which, with the help of an additional bar, turns into a caliper.

Measurement of circumference dimensions
The perimeters are determined using a centimeter tape, the measurement accuracy is 0.5 cm. You can use a metal or ordinary centimeter tape. However, when measuring perimeters, it is necessary

Measurement of skin-fat folds
To determine the thickness of the skin-fat layer, several fundamentally different methods have been proposed and

Determination of weight (mass)
Weighing should be carried out on a decimal medical scale with an accuracy of 50 g; it is not recommended to use spring scales due to their large errors. Scales before the study

Determination of body composition
The composition of the human body most fully expresses the nature of metabolism, and also allows you to judge the ratio of fat, muscle and bone mass and fluid. It depends on gender, age,

Goniometry
Somatometry methods, widely used in school medicine, are not complete enough without data on mobility in individual joints and kinematic chains. Goniometry of the human body (gonion

Measurement of joint mobility
Mobility in the joints significantly depends on external and internal factors: ambient temperature, time of day, emotional state of the subjects, preliminary physical activity. FROM

Measurement of mobility in individual joints
The movements of the upper limb should be considered as the result of the combined movement of the shoulder girdle at the sternoclavicular joint and the humerus at the shoulder joint. The shoulder girdle moves

Dynamometry
The measurement of the strength of individual muscle groups of a person with the help of special devices - dynamometers is called dynamometry. Dynamometric indicators can be expressed in absolute values

Rules for measuring muscle strength
The literature contains descriptions of various positions of subjects when measuring muscle strength (standing, lying, sitting). The absolute strength of the muscles depends significantly on the starting position during the measurement: for example,

Methods for examining the arches of the foot
The foot is a support organ when standing and moving the body, it also performs a spring function, absorbing shocks and shocks when walking, running, jumping. The foot forms an external arch in the longitudinal direction (

Test work on sports morphology
“Peculiarities of physique and physical development of an athlete” Completed by: F.I.O. ____________________________________________________________ Well_________

8.1.5. Measurement of the longitudinal dimensions of the body

For the correct measurement of body length, a number of requirements must be met.

Here it is appropriate to quote the remark of the Swiss anthropologist R. Martin, who wrote that accurate determination of body length while standing requires maximum attention from the researcher, since many comparative calculations are made to body length, i.e. expressed as a percentage of the individual body length. Such research loses all value if the length of the body is determined incorrectly.

AND Sitting body length measurement (body, neck and head lengths). The person being measured sits on the stool of the stadiometer (Fig. 8.14), touching its vertical bar with the buttocks, back at the level of the shoulder blades and the back of the head. It is necessary to ensure that the legs are closed, the head is in the position described above. Measurements are made as described above. When measuring body length while sitting with an anthropometer, the latter is installed on a stool, on which the person being measured sits with a straight back.

AND measuring the length of the leg and its segments. Measurement of the length of the lower limb is difficult because it is difficult to accurately determine the proximal point from which measurements should be taken. In this regard, the authors propose to define the upper point in different ways. French anthropologists take the top of the greater trochanter as the starting point for measurement, German anthropologists take the upper anterior iliac spine. R. Martin proposes to determine the length of the lower limb from the anterior iliac spine to the sole (floor), and subtract 5 cm from the result for men and 4 cm for women. Undoubtedly, the data obtained in this way cannot be accurate , since the distance from the superior anterior iliac spine to the femoral head is subject to sharp individual fluctuations.

Due to the fact that several methods for determining the length of the lower limb have been proposed, it is always necessary to indicate how its length was determined, otherwise the material will not be comparable. It is advisable to determine the length of the lower limb with an anthropometer from the inguinal point to the floor or shield on which the person being measured stands. The measurement of the length of the thigh is made by an anthropometer from the inguinal point proximally to the upper tibial inner point, which, with the knee extended, is located the highest. To determine this point, it is necessary to slightly bend the knee and feel the joint space of the knee joint from the inside, a fingernail is placed on the most protruding bone point of the tibia, to which the bar of the measuring instrument is then brought. The measurement of the length of the lower leg is made by an anthropometer from the upper tibial point to the lower tibial point, which is located at the end of the inner ankle and, with straightened legs, occupies the lowest position. The height of the foot is determined from the lower tibial point to the floor or shield on which the measured subject stands (see Fig. 8.13).

The length of the foot is determined by an anthropometer from the heel point to the most protruding forward point of the foot "ultimate", which is located at the end of the second or first toes.

Measurement of the length of the spine and its sections is carried out with the subject in the main anthropometric stance.

The total length of the spine is measured from the inion point to the tip of the coccyx. First, the anthropometer measures the position of the “inion” point above the floor, then the coccyx. The length of the spinal column is determined by subtracting the second measurement from the result of the first measurement. The length of the cervical spine is measured from the "inion" point to the middle of the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra, that is, the cervical point. The length of the thoracic region is measured from the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra to the upper edge of the spinous process of the XII thoracic vertebra. The length of the lumbar is measured from the upper edge of the spinous process of the XII thoracic vertebra to the lower edge of the spinous process of the V lumbar vertebra, that is, the lumbar point. The length of the sacrococcygeal section is determined from the lower edge of the spinous process of the 5th lumbar vertebra to the top of the coccyx. Often in research, the total length of the movable part of the spine, measured from the "inion" to the lumbar point, is used.

H it must always be remembered that due to the presence of natural curves of the spine, its total length is always less than the sum of separately measured sections.

8.1.6. Measurement of the transverse dimensions of the body

Measurement of the transverse dimensions of the body is carried out with a thick compass (measurement accuracy 0.5 cm) or the head of the anthropometer, which, with the help of an additional bar, turns into a caliper (measurement accuracy 0.1 cm).
Measurement technique: the legs of the compass are taken between the index and thumb fingers. The corresponding anatomical formations (anthropometric points) are found with the tips of the middle fingers and, under the control of the fingers, the end thickenings of the compass are pressed tightly against them.

The width of the shoulders is determined between the shoulder points, that is, between the most protruding points in the lateral direction of the upper lateral edge of the acromial process of both sides of the shoulders. The value obtained as a result of measurements characterizes the through size between these points. The transverse (frontal) diameter of the chest is measured with a thick compass between the points located at the intersection of the midaxillary line and the horizontal line drawn through the attachment point of the IV rib to the sternum, that is, through the midsternal point (Fig. 8.16).

Some authors propose, in addition to the named size, to also determine the maximum transverse size of the chest, that is, between the points of the chest
cells most protruding to the lateral side, noting at the level of which rib it is located.

The anteroposterior (sagittal) diameter of the chest is measured between the midsternal point, located at the level of attachment of the IV rib to the sternum, and the spinous process of the thoracic vertebra, located in this horizontal plane.

IN
All indicators of the chest are taken at the time of the respiratory pause.
Pelvic measurements. All measurements of the pelvis are made in the position of the person being measured standing with tightly closed hips. With anthropometric measurements, it is customary to determine three frontal and one sagittal size of the pelvis (Fig. 8.17).

The width of the pelvis 1 is determined between the iliac-scallop points on the right and left, that is, the most protruding outward points on the iliac crest. The measurement accuracy is 0.5 cm. When measuring this size, you should only lightly press on the measured area with the legs of the compass, otherwise, due to the deformation of the soft tissues, a large measurement error is obtained.

The width of the pelvis 2 is determined between the iliac-spinous anterior points of the right and left sides. The measurement is made in the same way as in the previous case.

The width of the pelvis 3 is measured between the skewers of the right and left sides, between their tops. The sagittal size of the pelvis can be measured from the pubic point, located on the upper edge of the pubic symphysis, to the lumbar point, located on the top of the spinous process of the lumbar vertebra. However, this condition is difficult to fulfill due to the fact that the spinous process is difficult to palpate, therefore, it is proposed to place the second leg of the compass in a well-palpable gap between the spinous processes of the last lumbar and first sacral vertebrae.

Note. In the case when it is difficult to feel the formations mentioned above, one should be guided by the middle of the height between two horizontal lines, one of which is drawn between the upper edges of both iliac crests, the other between the posterior iliac spines. To calculate the bone mass, the degree of development of the skeleton, it is necessary to determine the width of the condyles of the shoulder, thigh, the width of the bones of the forearm, lower leg, the width of the hand and foot.

Upper limb measurements. The width of the condyle of the shoulder is determined with a caliper with the elbow joint bent. One leg of the compass is placed on the medial condyle - the eminence of the humerus, most protruding inward, the second - on the lateral epicondyle - the eminence of the condyle of the humerus, protruding outwards.

The width of the bones of the forearm is determined between the styloid processes. One leg of the compass is placed on the ulna, the second on the radius, while measuring the legs are slightly clamped.

The width of the hand is measured at the level of the heads of the metacarpal bones with the fingers fully extended. One leg of the compass is placed on the outer surface of the heads of the second metacarpal bone, the second - on the inner surface of the head of the fifth metacarpal bone.

Measurements of the width of the condyle of the femur are made with a caliper, one leg of which is placed on the medial epicondyle of the femur, the second - on the lateral epicondyle. When measuring, lightly press on the legs of the compass.

The width of the bones of the lower leg is determined between the ankles of the fibula and tibia; the measurement is similar to the measurement on the forearm.

The measurement of the width of the foot is made with a caliper at the level of the heads of the metatarsal bones. The subject must stand up, evenly leaning on both feet.

8.1.7. Measurement of circumference dimensions

The perimeters are determined using a centimeter tape, the measurement accuracy is 0.5 cm. You can use a metal or ordinary centimeter tape. However, when measuring the perimeters, it is necessary to strictly follow the instructions, scrupulously observe them, otherwise the results cannot be compared with the data of other researchers.

Measurement of neck circumference. When measuring the circumference of the neck, it is necessary that the head of the person being measured be in the position described when measuring the length of the body. The centimeter tape is superimposed so that it is located at the back in the deepest place of the concavity of the neck, in front - above the thyroid cartilage.

Measurement of chest circumference. To measure the circumference of the chest, several methods have been proposed that are dictated by the goals and objectives of the measurements. It is advisable to make measurements as follows: the measuring tape is applied at the back directly under the angles of the shoulder blades, on the sides - high in the armpit and in front - above the nipples of the breast in men, that is, at the level of the mid-sternal point. For girls and women, the measuring tape is applied at the back and sides in the same way as for men, in front it should be placed exactly above the initial part of the breast. When applying a centimeter tape, the subject is asked to slightly raise his hands, then lower them and stand in a calm stance. Measurements are taken at maximum inhalation, exhalation and normal quiet breathing. It should be ensured that during maximum inspiration the subject does not raise his shoulders, and during maximum exhalation he does not bring them together and does not lean forward.

Note. When measuring the circumference of the chest in children, there is a desire to strain, stick out the chest and hold it in the stage of deep inspiration. In this case, it is necessary to offer the subject to count aloud loudly, and pull the centimeter tape and follow its movement, as soon as it stops, the numbers will correspond to the respiratory pause.

Measuring the circumference of the abdomen. Usually the circumference of the abdomen is determined in the narrowest place, which corresponds to the imposition of a centimeter tape 3-4 cm above the wings of the ilium and slightly above the navel. During the measurement, care should be taken that the subject does not retract or inflate the stomach. In older people, it is advisable to determine the largest and smallest abdominal circumferences. They are determined not in a strictly defined place, but in the plane where they are located.

Thigh circumference measurements. When measuring the perimeters of the lower limb, the subject should stand, evenly leaning on both legs, which are spaced shoulder-width apart. The maximum circumference of the thigh is determined at the place of its greatest fullness in the medial direction under the gluteal fold. The centimeter tape is superimposed strictly horizontally with minimal tension. The minimum circumference of the thigh is determined in the lower third of it, 7-8 cm above the knee joint. The measuring tape is applied horizontally at the narrowest part of the thigh. In some cases of examination of athletes, it is advisable to know not the general girth dimensions of the limb, but separately the groups of flexor and extensor muscles; for this purpose, semi-perimeters should be determined.

The technique developed by R. N. Dorokhov (1963) is described below. To determine the semi-perimeters of the thigh, borders are drawn between the anterior and posterior muscle groups, and then the distance between them is measured.

H
the outer line connects the trochanteric point with the head of the fibula, the inner ones - the first connects the lower edge of the symphysis with the inner epicondyle, the second - the ischial tubercle and the inner epicondyle of the thigh. Measurements are made in the upper third of the thigh in front and behind, as well as in the lower third of the thigh in front and behind between the named lines (Fig. 8.18).

Calf circumference measurements. The maximum and minimum leg circumferences are determined. There is no strictly defined level of measurement on the lower leg, since the forms of the lower leg are extremely diverse. The maximum circumference of the lower leg is determined where it is located, the minimum circumference of the lower leg is determined 4-5 cm above the lower tibial point. The dimensions of the anterior and posterior muscle groups should also be determined. To determine, a vertical line is drawn from the head of the fibula to the lower protrusion of the lateral malleolus. Measurements are made in the upper third of the lower leg, a measuring tape was applied horizontally between the named vertical line and the anterior crest of the tibia (the size characterizes the anterior muscle group). The characteristic of the posterior muscle group is obtained by measuring from the vertical along the posterior surface to the inner edge of the tibia.

Shoulder circumference measurement produced in relaxed and tense states. The difference between these indicators is an indicator of muscle development.

Measurements are made as follows: the arm in the supinated position is bent to the horizontal position of the forearm, a centimeter tape is applied in the place of the greatest thickening of the biceps, then the measured subject is asked to clench his fist and bend the arm at the elbow joint with maximum tension; after that, the first measurement is taken. Then, without removing the centimeter tape, the hand relaxes and freely falls down, a second measurement is made. Thus, in the column of the circumference of the shoulder, two numbers are recorded: the first is the circumference of the shoulder in a tense state and the second is in a relaxed state, the difference is recorded under them.

To determine the shape of the shoulder, measurements are made differently. The arm is loosely down along the body, the palm is turned inward.

A centimeter tape is applied in the upper third of the shoulder at the place of attachment of the deltoid muscle and the first measurement is taken. Then the tape moves to the lower third of the shoulder 4-5 cm above the epicondyles of the shoulder and a second measurement is made.

Measurement of the circumference of the forearm. The circumference of the forearm is measured: in its upper third - the maximum; minimal - in the lower third in the place of its smallest thickness, but always proximal to the styloid processes of the radius and ulna. All measurements are taken on a hand freely lowered along the body.

Note. The greatest narrowing is located distal to the styloid processes - in the area of the wrist joint; measuring in this place the minimum circumference of the forearm is a gross error.

Measuring the circumference of the hand. The circumference of the hand is measured in two places. A centimeter tape is applied horizontally at the level of the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb with the thumb adducted and fingers clenched. The second measurement - the tape is superimposed above the heads of the metacarpal bones, that is, the circumference of the hand without the thumb is determined.

8.1.8. Measurement of skin-fat folds

D To determine the thickness of the skin-fat layer, several fundamentally different measurement methods have been proposed: radiographic, ultrasonic, mechanical - caliperometry. Many elementary and more complex devices have been created, with the help of which the thickness of fat is measured directly on a living subject. The variety of research tools used leads to data that are difficult to compare. In this regard, the World Health Organization under UNESCO established standards that characterize measuring instruments. The pressure of the device when measuring the thickness of skin folds should be 10 g/mm 2 , and the pressure surface area of the instrument should not exceed 90 mm 2 .

Measurement technique: both hands are used when measuring (Fig. 8.19). With one hand, the thumb and third finger gather and pull the skin-fat fold, which is captured with minimal pressure (if there is no standard indicator on the device).
pressure) branches (measuring pads) of the measuring device. To determine the true thickness of the fat layer, the result is divided by two. It is recommended to repeat the same measurement twice, three times - average
the result is recorded in the survey card. Measurement of the thickness of the skin-fat folds is carried out in the following areas of the body:

1) at the lower angle of the scapula;

2) at the axillary edge of the pectoralis major muscle;

3) on the abdomen to the right and above the navel;

4) in the middle of the back surface of the shoulder;

5) in the middle of the front surface of the shoulder;

6) in the upper third of the anterior surface of the forearm;

7) in the upper third of the anterior surface of the thigh (above the rectus femoris);

8) in the upper or middle third of the posterior surface of the lower leg (above the gastrocnemius muscle).

8.1.9. Determination of weight (mass)

Weighing should be carried out on a decimal medical scale with an accuracy of 50 g; it is not recommended to use spring scales due to their large errors. Scales must be calibrated before testing. This is done as follows: the small and large weights are set to zero, the bar that stops the movement of the rocker opens - the beak of the rocker should, with properly adjusted weights, stop opposite the beak of the reference. In the event that the beak of the rocker arm stops above or below the reference one, it is necessary to adjust the scales with the balancing weights located in the left half of the rocker arm, turning them to the right or left. After that, weighing can be carried out, preferably in the morning, on an empty stomach.

8.1.10. Determination of body composition

The composition of the human body most fully expresses the nature of metabolism, and also allows you to judge the ratio of fat, muscle and bone mass and fluid. It depends on gender, age, previous diseases, nutritional status, specialization, qualifications, degree of training. Monitoring changes in total body weight is not sufficient to assess the impact of systematic training on an athlete's body composition. It is necessary to establish in each case, due to which components the weight changes.

Body composition refers to the quantitative (expressed as a percentage or kg) or qualitative (expressed in points) ratio of metabolically active and inactive tissues. Metabolically active tissues are muscle and bone tissue, nervous tissue, tissue internal organs. Inactive tissue - subcutaneous and internal fat, which constitutes the energy reserve of the body. Active tissues are collectively referred to as lean tissue or lean body mass. The composition of the body allows you to more accurately determine the somatic component of the constitution of a given individual.

The following methods for determining body composition are used:

1) anatomical dissection, removal of organs from a corpse and weighing;

2) anthropometric measurement of skin-fat folds with subsequent calculation of the mass of fat, calculation according to the formulas for the volumes of body links - cone, cylinder, ball, oval;

3) dissynthometric - weighing the body on land and in water, followed by calculation of the specific weight of the body;

4) radiographic - determination of tissue thicknesses on radiographs with subsequent recalculation;

5) ultrasonic - the thickness of subcutaneous fat is estimated, then it is converted to its total mass by adding 1/3 of it to the mass of subcutaneous fat;

6) radioactive (isotope) method;

7) neutral activation - used only in a hospital.

With age, body composition changes significantly. Fat mass undergoes the greatest changes. Especially actively fat increases in the first year of life. It has been established that boys have the minimum amount of fat at 8 years old, the maximum - at 12-12.5 years old, then there is a repeated decrease in its content. In girls, all changes occur a year earlier.

8.2. Goniometry

Somatometry methods, widely used in school medicine, are not complete enough without data on mobility in individual joints and kinematic chains.

Goniometry of the human body (gonion - angle, metron - I measure) is one of the sections of dynamic anthropometry. The results of mobility in the joints are measured in angular units. A detailed development of this method showed that goniometry, in combination with somatic characteristics, is a section of the bone constitution of the human body.

For the first time, thorough goniometric studies were carried out in the Soviet Union in 1934 by V.A. Ginburtsev, who proposed a compass goniometer device for measuring the curvature of the spine. Despite the fact that more than 50 years have passed since the beginning of the study of angular characteristics, there is no single unified measurement technique.

The most studied are the angles of inclination of the gas, the curvature of the spine in terms of studying the formation of posture in normal conditions and under various loads. In sports practice, work on correcting posture in children and adolescents during swimming comes to the fore. Somewhat less work on mobility in the shoulder and hip joints. Complex devices were proposed: "spherosomatometers" - allowing volumetric movement in three mutually perpendicular planes. The most successful development is N. Valyansky's spatial goniometer, which made it possible to evaluate all the necessary dimensions of the chest and mobility in the shoulder girdle in case of scoliosis and various postures.

Mention should be made of the studies of V.N. Moshkov (1992), who proposed using a caliper to measure the mobility of the shoulder girdle. The work has spread not only in orthopedics, but also in sports medicine, biomechanics. Let us give one of the examples of work on the Moshkov method.

For the work of the superficial muscles of the back, it is proposed to measure the distance between the following points:

1) the lower corner of the left scapula - the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra; 2) the lower corner of the left scapula - the spinous process of the IV vertebra; 3) the lower corner of the right scapula - the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra; 4) the lower right corner of the right scapula - the spinous process of the IV lumbar vertebra. The rhombus built according to these measurements was called "Moshkov's rhombus". The measurement is carried out with the contraction of the back muscles and the rotation of the shoulder blades.

An interesting technique was developed by S.S. Groshenkov (1949). The device consists of flexible measuring tapes and a plumb line. With this device, you can get the amount of lordosis and lateral curvature of the spine. The disadvantage is the strengthening of the device on the soft tissues of the body, which leads to serious errors due to their mobility.

Yu.D. Kuzmenko modified the McKenzie and Furst pantograph, which allows recording the movements of the spine and recording (drawing) its contours. The fixed pelvis made it possible to monitor the free part of the spine and determine the asymmetry of movement by contourograms in the sagittal and frontal planes.

The scolimeter proposed by Z.V. Lesunov, also built on the principle of a pantograph. A variation of the pantograph was that instead of a drawing device, an electrically controlled needle was located at the end of the device, which made punctures on paper. The device made it possible to simultaneously mark the position of the spine in the sagittal and frontal planes.

N. Baranov, Z.I. Konchakan was offered a two-plane photograph with a measuring ruler in the field of view of the lens. Two orthogonal photographs made it possible to make calculations when a person moves.

R.N. Dorokhov proposed contour photography using a slit lamp, which allows shooting in any plane of interest to the author. The technique was tested in the postoperative period, when it was necessary to register chest movements on the operated and healthy side.

The development of technical capabilities has made it possible to use fluorography to assess scoliosis and the results of their treatment.

To measure mobility in individual joints, goniometer calipers have been developed that are simple in design and easy to use. Gravitational goniometers have found wide application in practice, which make it possible to easily and simply record movements in the joint. The design of the device is extremely simple: the circular scale of the goniometer, in the center of which the arrow is fixed (with a counterweight), constantly maintains a vertical position, which allows you to accurately read the angle of movement in the joint. Later, this needle was connected to a potentiometer, which, in turn, was connected to a galvanometer. The slightest change in the pointer position was recorded as angular characteristics on the scale of the device.

In addition to the described devices, devices have been developed for recording movements in several planes and joints at once. These include a universal stop-angle meter (M. Shutkov, R. Dorokhov), which allows you to simultaneously register flexion (extension) in the ankle joint, pronation (supination) of the foot, rotation in the knee joint. A device for determining mobility in the wrist joint at various positions of the forearm was made (M. Shutkov, Yu. Kuzmenko, R. Dorokhov). A polyarticular protractor was developed to measure mobility in the shoulder, elbow, knee, and hip joints (Yu. Kuzmenko, R. Dorokhov).

Recently, an original device has been developed that allows you to simultaneously measure the mobility in the joint, the speed of movement of the link, the acceleration of movement, register muscle strength with recording and storage in a microdevice (drive), as necessary, information can be taken with a projection on the display or output to the printer (K.N. . Stroev).

8.2.1. Measurement of joint mobility

Mobility in the joints significantly depends on external and internal factors: ambient temperature, time of day, emotional state of the subjects, preliminary physical activity. Significantly different active and passive mobility in the joints, which depend on the state of the connective tissue surrounding the joint and located in the muscles. Active movements are associated with muscle strength and the position of the moving link in the force field. It is possible to warm up the connective tissue, make it more elastic by increasing the inflowing blood, which raises the temperature in the surrounding tissues. Stretching (English, stretch - stretch, stretch) exercises begin with slow movements of an active and passive nature. Exercises should be: 1) slow; 2) with constantly increasing amplitude; 3) the number of repetitions - 8-12; 4) excessive stretching of the connective tissue and muscles-antagonists and synergists reduces the range of motion; 5) do not measure mobility in the joints on the background of fatigue or after strength training; 6) ambient temperature - 18-20; 7) it is necessary to ensure that movements in adjacent joints do not increase or limit mobility in the joint under study.

The most common measurement instruments, as mentioned earlier, are gravitational goniometers. There are two options for measurements: in the first, the goniometer is fixed on the distal link of the body with the help of rubber rings, the position of the arrow is marked - the movement is made and the position of the arrow is re-marked. The difference between the first and second indicator of the arrow is the range (amplitude) of movement in the joint.

The second method boils down to the fact that the goniometer is fixed on a fixed jaw of a thick compass or caliper. A complex is created from a caliper and a goniometer. One branch (leg) of the goniometer is installed on the axis of the joint in which they want to make movements, the second - on the distal end of the bone included IN the measured joint is on this branch and the gravitational goniometer is strengthened. A movement is made and the difference between the first (initial) and final (final) positions of the bone, along which the compass bar was located, is noted.

To determine the mobility in kinematic chains, a measurement method has been developed using some gravitational goniometers, which register the movement of the proximal and distal links of the chain and, by simple calculations, determine the mobility in the joint of interest.

8.2.2. Measurement of mobility in individual joints

The movements of the upper limb should be considered as the result of the combined movement of the shoulder girdle at the sternoclavicular joint and the humerus at the shoulder joint. The shoulder girdle moves relative to the chest - lifting above the horizontal - elevation; lowering below the horizontal and turning inward - depression; advancement - protrusion; backward movement is retraction.
Measurement of the mobility of the shoulder girdle in the sternoclavicular joint around the sagittal axis in the frontal plane (elevation) is performed using a goniometer compass or a gravitational goniometer connected to a ruler that is located along the clavicle or along the scapular spine (if it is well defined). The starting position is a regular stance. It is necessary to ensure that the subject does not simultaneously make movements in the spinal column in the form of inclinations in the opposite direction from the measurement. The angles are measured when lowering and raising the shoulder girdle. Movement around the vertical axis is rarely measured. We recommend visually measuring forward movement from the frontal plane and backward movement from it.

AND
Measurements are taken using a ruler with a sliding slider, which moves with the fingertips of the arm raised to the horizontal and straightened at the elbow joint. IP. - normal stance, straight arms are retracted to 90 ° in the shoulder joint. Care must be taken not to twist and tilt in the spinal column when moving the shoulder girdle forward and backward. To do this, the researcher holds the chest of the subject from the sides; as soon as its movement begins, the value by which the slider of the measuring ruler is moved is noted.

The movement in the shoulder joint is usually performed in combination with the movements of the shoulder girdle. Therefore, it is methodically difficult to isolate and measure movement only in the shoulder joint. Reliable data are obtained only when measuring abduction, adduction and rotation around the vertical axis - pronation and supination (Fig. 8.20). Accurate measurement of abduction in the shoulder joint is possible only with a stationary scapula, when the researcher firmly holds the lower part of the scapula with one hand, and slowly abducts the subject's arm with the other. The muscles of the retracted arm should be as relaxed as possible. When muscle tension appears, the movement stops and the subject is asked to put pressure on the researcher's hand - to make a cast. This technique reduces the tension of the adductor muscles and allows passive abduction. The scapula can be fixed by pressing downwards in the region of the acromial process, preventing the shoulder girdle from rising.

I.P. for the measurement of abduction - a conventional stand, the measurement is carried out using a gravitational goniometer.
Rotation in the shoulder joint is measured with the shoulder abducted to an angle of 90°, this eliminates the influence of the movement of the scapula on the range of motion during pronation (turning inward) and supination (turning outward). I.P. - normal stance, arms abducted to 90°, forearm bent at a right angle to the shoulder, and the goniometer is fixed on it.

The remaining movements in the shoulder joint are measured by the maximum span, that is, the overall mobility of the shoulder girdle and the shoulder joint is determined. The measurement of general mobility is quite justified and informative in sports. However, it is always necessary to monitor and exclude additional movements in the spinal column during measurements.

Movement in the elbow joint. When measuring flexion and extension in the elbow joint, it is necessary to remember the paradoxical work of the muscles and be sure to fix the shoulder, preventing extension, or use two goniometers: one of them is fixed on the shoulder, the second on the forearm. Bending in the joint is performed - from the readings of the goniometer on the forearm, the readings of the goniometer on the shoulder are subtracted. I.P. - regular stand.

P
It is common to distinguish between the varus and valgus positions of the forearm in the frontal plane, that is, the deviation of the forearm relative to the shoulder at an angle open inwards or outwards. The installation of the forearm in the sagittal plane can be with underextension by 5-10°; in most cases, this is due to the development of the muscular system and muscle tone. The amplitude of movement is 150-160°.

Pronation and supination of the forearm are measured with a conventional goniometer, the scale of which is located in the frontal plane, as well as with a special device. I.P. – the forearm is flexed to an angle of 90° to exclude the influence of movements in the shoulder joint. The amplitude of movement is almost 180° (Fig. 8.21).

Movement in the wrist joint. I.P. - the arm is bent at the elbow joint, the forearm lies on the edge of the table. The measurement is made with a goniometer, which is fixed in the middle of the metacarpal bones. Measurement of flexion and extension is carried out with the pronated position of the forearm, abduction and adduction are measured in the middle position of the forearm between pronation and supination. The hand of the measured tightly presses the forearm of the subject to the table.

Range of motion: extension - 65-70°; flexion - 80-90 °; abduction - 50-60°; adduction is 20° more than abduction.

Movements in the spinal column largely depend on individual characteristics, that is, on the thickness and elasticity of the intervertebral discs, the direction and position of the articular processes of the vertebrae, and the elasticity of the ligamentous apparatus. Age, general physical condition, previous or unusual physical activity are important factors influencing spinal mobility. The movements of the spine must be distinguished from the movement of the body in general, both forward and backward. It must be remembered that flexion of the trunk consists of flexion in the hip joint and movements in the spinal column, these two components of a fused movement are difficult to separate without fixing the pelvis or taking into account its movement.

FROM
bending. In the absence of special devices for fixing the pelvis, we recommend using the following methods. First method. To measure, you need a conventional gravitational goniometer and a ruler. Preparation for measurements includes: drawing reference points on the body of the subject, which correspond to the middle of the outer ankle, the head of the fibula, the apex of the greater trochanter, the middle of the iliac wing, as well as I-VII cervical, XII thoracic, V lumbar vertebrae. The subject performs a full tilt-flexion, after which they measure (Fig. 8.22):

1. The angle of deviation of the lower leg in the ankle joint from the initial position, for which the goniometer ruler is located along the line connecting the middle of the outer ankle with the head of the fibula. 2. The angle of the pelvis - the ruler is located along the line connecting the middle of the trochanter with the middle of the wing of the ilium. Subtracting the readings of the first measurement from the second, we obtain the true value of the tilt of the pelvis in the hip joint. 3. The inclination of the lumbar spine is measured, for which the goniometer ruler is located along the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae. The indication of the pelvic tilt is subtracted from the obtained value - the difference characterizes the true value of the movement in the lumbar region. 4. Similarly, mobility in the thoracic and cervical regions is determined.

The second method for determining mobility in flexion. I.P. - sitting on a bench. From the starting position, the subject performs full flexion. The control of the end of flexion of the spinal column is the beginning of the movement of the pelvis, which is judged by the slope of the sacrum. This is done as follows: in the initial position along the sacrum, leaning on the bench, there is an edge of the ruler, which is held by the measuring assistant. The subject tilts the spinal column. As soon as the sacrum deviates from the ruler, the “stop” command is given and in this position, as described above, the angles of inclination of the corresponding department are measured.

Extension of the spinal column. IP. - main stand. The assistant keeps the pelvis from tilting back, for which he presses on the sacrum with one hand, and on the front surface of the upper thighs with the other. The subject performs full extension, standing on straight legs. The angles of inclination are measured similarly to the measurement of the spinal column during flexion. Lateral movements (tilts to the side). I.P. - vertical stance, legs apart to the sides by 50-60 cm with fully extended knees. The slope is strictly in the frontal plane. Measurements are made with a goniometer between the points of the spinal column listed above, the goniometer scale is located in the frontal plane.

The hip joint has great mobility. Extension is best determined in the prone position, this position eliminates movement in the lumbar spine, which in the upright position is mistaken for hip movement. In the event that measurements are taken in a vertical position, the angle of inclination of the pelvis is necessarily determined by the second goniometer - the goniometer ruler is located along the line: the apex of the trochanter - the middle of the wing of the ilium; the readings of the second goniometer are subtracted from the readings of the goniometer located on the distal part of the thigh. The amplitude of movement is 15-18 °.

FROM
hip flexion should be measured in the supine position with the lower leg flexed at the knee (Figure 8.23). The second leg is placed horizontally on the table, held by an assistant to prevent movement in the lumbar spine. In sports, it is sometimes necessary to measure the mobility of the straight leg, in which case the examiner holds the leg whose mobility is being measured by the heel and slightly assists the movement. The goniometer is fixed on the distal part of the thigh parallel to the longitudinal axis of the thigh. The amplitude of movement with the leg bent at the knee joint is about 120 °, with a straight leg - 90 °. Abduction in the hip joint is measured from the starting position, lying on the back with straight legs. When standing, it is practically very difficult to exclude movement in the opposite hip joint. If the conditions do not allow measuring the prone abduction, then it is recommended to fix one goniometer on the distal part of the thigh, the mobility of which is measured, and position the second one so that the ruler runs vertically downward from the anterior superior iliac spine. The readings of the goniometers are subtracted - the difference characterizes the abduction.

It should be remembered that abduction in the hip joint increases with flexion and decreases with extension. All measurements should be taken with the same position of the thigh in the sagittal plane. Abduction amplitude - 40-45°, adduction - 20-30°.

Pronation and supination of the hip in the hip joint are measured while lying on the stomach with the lower leg bent up to 90 ° at the knee joint or standing on one leg with the hip and lower leg bent up to 90 °. The goniometer is fixed along the longitudinal axis of the leg. Range of motion: pronation - 40°, supination - 45°.

IN
the knee joint, mobility is measured from a standing position, the goniometer is fixed on the lower leg in the distal part with the orientation of its axis along the lines connecting the middle of the outer ankle with the head of the fibula (Fig. 8.24).

When measuring, it is necessary to ensure that the thigh does not make compensatory movements in the hip joint. For this purpose, a second goniometer is fixed on the thigh, the readings of which are subtracted from the readings of the goniometer located on the lower leg. Calf rotation is measured while seated with knee bent and foot fully extended (Figure 8.25). The goniometer is oriented along the frontal axis of the foot. The researcher holds the hip, preventing its movement. The range of motion varies widely from person to person.

FROM
flexion and extension of the foot is measured with the knee bent, the goniometer is fixed on the plantar side or dorsum of the foot (take into account the tilt of the dorsum of the foot). The possible amplitude of extension is 18-25°, flexion is 45°. When measuring pronation and supination, the goniometer is fixed on the foot in the frontal plane. The amplitude of pronation is 20°, supination is 30°, counting from the resting position.

8.3. Dynamometry

The measurement of the strength of individual muscle groups of a person with the help of special devices - dynamometers is called dynamometry. Dynamometric indicators can be expressed in absolute values (kg) or relative to the mass (weight) of the human body. These data are widely used in physiology, occupational health, medicine, sports as indicators of the physical condition and fitness of an athlete.

The study of the topography of the strength of individual muscle groups makes it possible to determine the features of their development depending on the practice of a particular sport. , on the skill of the athlete and the level of his training. Analysis of muscle strength indicators over the entire range of possible movement in the joint, as well as strength topography individual groups muscles allows more targeted training sessions, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete.

Devices for measuring force are called dynamometers. The dynamometer consists of a power link (elastic element) and a reading device. In the power link of the device, the measured force is converted into a deformation, which is directly or through transmission reported to the reading or recording device. According to the principle of operation, mechanical (spring or lever), hydraulic, pneumatic, electric dynamometers are distinguished. Sometimes two principles are used in one dynamometer, providing a greater class of accuracy and ease of use. According to the degree of accuracy, working dynamometers are divided into two classes: 1st - with an error of 1% and 2nd - with an error of 2.0% of the load limit value. Dynamometers associated with a writing device or having one themselves are called dynamographs. The use of dynamographs in the examination of athletes is the most promising, since the objective data of the study are preserved, which can be compared with subsequent results of the study. Second positive trait dynamographs is that force is recorded in time and further decoding of dynamograms will allow assessing the speed-strength qualities of an athlete. The change in force over time - the rate of change of force - is loosely referred to as the "force gradient". The unit of measure is kilogram per second per second.

The most promising are electric dynamometers, which consist of a sensor that converts the deformation of an elastic element under the influence of an external (muscle) force into an electrical signal, and a secondary device that amplifies the signal and records it. In order to convert the signal, sensors are used that change resistance during deformation (strain resistors), induction, vibration-frequency characteristics, or in which a piezoelectric effect occurs. In sports practice, resistance sensors with elastic elements and strain gauge gratings are most widely used. Strain gauge gratings are 0.0025-0.003 mm thick high electrical resistance alloy wire glued between two layers of paper or film. If the strain gauge is glued to the surface of the elastic element, then it will deform together with the bearing surface and register its deformation, and, consequently, the force acting from the outside. The advantages of strain gauges, which ensure their wide application: 1) small size and weight; 2) the ability to measure very small deformation, that is, high sensitivity; 3) low inertia, which makes it possible to measure not only static, but also dynamic loads; 4) the possibility of remote measurements.

8.3.1. Rules for measuring muscle strength

The literature contains descriptions of various positions of subjects when measuring muscle strength (standing, lying, sitting). The absolute strength of the muscles significantly depends on the initial position during the measurement: for example, the strength of the hip extensor, measured in the standing and lying positions, has a difference of up to 20%.

When measuring muscle strength, the following rules must be observed: 1) the best time for measurements is the first half of the day, 2.5-3 hours after eating; 2) it is necessary to warm up for 10-15 minutes without weights; 3) the ambient temperature should be from + 18 to + 22 °: 4) the position of the subject is vertical; 5) obligatory fixation of the proximal joints and keeping the position of the distal joints constant; 6) the shoulder of application of force in all subjects should be constant, since in all cases it is not the force that is measured, but the moment of muscle force; 7) the angle between the dynamometer and the link (thigh, lower leg) must be straight; 8) when studying the relationship between muscle strength and technical parameters of performing movements, it is advisable to carry out measurements taking into account individual working angles; 9) the cuff to which the dynamometer is attached must be at least 5 cm wide to eliminate the pain component; 10) measurement of strength after training and the next day after the competition is not advisable, except for special studies; 11) when comparing the strength of the flexor and extensor muscles acting on one link, it is necessary to make measurements with strict consideration of the initial state of the muscles (their stretch); 12) it is advisable to measure muscle strength over the entire range of motion every 10° for large joints and 5° for small ones.

Measurement of force according to the method of A.V. Korobkova et al. produced on a measuring machine, which allows you to achieve an isolated action of a certain muscle group. The machine consists of a metal frame tightly fixed on six legs. A vertical rack with a transverse movable bar moves along the frame, to which the sensor is fixed during the experiment. Inside the frame, a wooden platform is strengthened with a headrest on one side and a bar for resting the legs on the other. The frame is equipped with straps, which ensure the immobility of the measured. The initial position of the subject for all measurements is lying on his back or stomach. The disadvantage of the method is that the measurements are carried out without taking into account the state of the muscles. their extension, as well as the ability to measure only if there is a right angle between the proximally and distally located links. There is no way to measure muscle strength during pronation and supination.

Measurement of muscle strength according to the method of B.M. Fishing is carried out using a special device, consisting of a support shield with straps, which is fixed on the gymnastic wall and serves as a support and fixation of the subject during the measurement; a stand, which makes it possible to fix the foot when measuring and strengthening the dynamometer, a bracket attached to the gymnastic rack and serving as an upper support for the dynamometer. The initial position of the measured is vertical. The disadvantages of the method are the same as for the technique of A. V. Korobkov; advantages - portability of the device.

M
The methodology developed at the Department of Anatomy of the Smolensk State Institute of Physical Culture (R.N. Dorokhov, Yu.D. Kuzmenko, Ya.S. Tatarinov, M.I. Shutkov) makes it possible to measure muscle strength over the entire range of possible movement in the joints. The stationary version of the measuring device consists of a support frame 2.5 m high, one side of which has the form of a semicircle, along which blocks are located that make it possible to measure muscle strength at any position of the limb while maintaining the mandatory condition - the position between the limb and the dynamometer is 90 °. In the center of the frame there is a supporting vertical to strengthen the subject (Fig. 8.26).

It has an additional support bar for fixing the knee joint, a platform with a reinforced slalom boot, which allows you to completely exclude movement in the ankle joint of the supporting leg, a platform for supporting and fixing the torso. The support device rotates freely around a vertical axis. This allows you to measure muscle strength when moving around the sagittal and frontal axes. When measuring the strength of the muscles of the body in the center of the support frame, instead of the support vertical, a fixing device for the pelvis and lower limbs with a changing height of the strengthening platform is installed. Two reversible electric motors are also fixed on the support frame, which make it possible to measure muscle strength with the help of cables and a dynamometer in overcoming and yielding types of work. The advantage of this method is that it is possible to measure the strength of the muscles in specific working angles with great accuracy during movements in all joints without exception in overcoming, holding and yielding muscle work. The disadvantage is bulkiness.

A portable version of the support device for measuring muscle strength (R.N. Dorokhov, Yu.D. Kuzmenko) is a parallelepiped connected from pipes (Fig. 8.27), three sides of which have metal jumpers located at regular intervals, which allow, if necessary, to set with the help of chains, the desired position of the studied link of the body, that is, to measure the strength of the muscles in any of their states (extension). The fourth side is equipped with a movable frame with straps and support brackets, with the help of which the subject is fixed in the desired position, additional movements are excluded. The support brackets and frame can be adjusted to any height of the subject, which is very important when measuring in schools. In order to maintain a constant strength of the shoulder muscles, frame-type devices were made, which are put on the link of the body, the strength of which is being studied.

Advantages - the ability to disassemble the device and easily transport it, the ability to measure the force in the "working corners".

8.4. Methods for examining the arches of the foot

The foot is a support organ when standing and moving the body, it also performs a spring function, absorbing shocks and shocks when walking, running, jumping. The foot forms the outer (supporting) and inner (spring) arches in the longitudinal direction. The points of support for the arch of the foot are the heads of the metatarsal bones and the calcaneal tubercle (fingers do not play a supporting role, they serve to adapt the foot to the soil when moving). According to Fick, in the longitudinal arch, 5 meadows can be distinguished, corresponding to five metatarsal bones. On the calcaneal tubercle, all arcs converge at one point. The highest and longest meadows pass through the 11 metatarsal bone, the lowest
- through the metatarsal bone, In children under 3 years old, the foot looks flat due to the fact that the arch of the moan is filled with a fatty pad and is not determined.
In the transverse direction, the arch is formed by the bones of the metatarsus and tarsus and is divided into anterior and posterior. The vaulted structure of the groan is inherent only in man due to his vertical position.
Support for the arches of the foot.
1. Passive due to the design of the skeleton of the moan and the relative position of small bones.
2. Due to the articular-ligamentous apparatus and plantar aponeurosis.
3. Due to the powerful layer of the plantar muscles and partly the muscles of the lower leg. The arches of the foot withstand large dynamic loads, so in long jumps the dynamic force is 900 kg at the moment of meeting with the support and 500 kg at the moment of repulsion.
When the moan is flattened, subtle biomechanical interactions in the habitual motor skill are disturbed, which leads to a distortion of this skill, local (local) overloads occur in the musculoskeletal system, resulting in acute and chronic traumatic injuries. When distorted, the moan loses its efficiency: the same movement requires great muscular effort.
Flat feet - deformity of the foot, accompanied by a decrease in the height of the arches of the foot. When the longitudinal arches are flattened, longitudinal flat feet occur, and when the transverse arches are flattened, transverse flat feet occur.
Longitudinal flatfoot is often combined with pronation of the foot and abduction of the forefoot (foot valgus). Early symptoms of flat feet include leg fatigue and pain in the calf muscles when walking and towards the end of the day.
When lowering the transverse arch, pain occurs in the area of \u200b\u200bthe heads and and I of the metatarsal bones. When the longitudinal arches are lowered, pain appears at the site of attachment of the plantar muscles to the calcaneus, which persists and intensifies when lifting onto socks.

Signs of pronounced flat feet are: lengthening of the groan, their expansion in the middle part, flattening of the longitudinal arch, pronation of the feet with the heels moving outwards.
There are various methods for determining flat feet. The main ones are the following:
1. Visual.
2. Measuring:
a) submetric;
b) platographic (methods of Chizhin, Godunov with coash, Strieter).
3. Radiographic (with subsequent processing of radiographs).
4. Optical.
visual method. When examining the foot, one should determine the condition of the arteries of the moan (pulsation of the dorsal artery of the moan and the posterior tibial artery), the condition of the veins (are there any varicose, that is, local, extensions), check for edema, scars, inflammatory infiltrates, etc. These pathological conditions can cause pain even in the absence of flat feet.
The lower extremities are examined in the sitting, standing and walking positions. Changes in the shape and position of the limb as a whole and separately the installation of the foot and toes are checked. For example, with O-shaped legs (varus setting), the feet acquire a compensatory valgus setting in the posterior region.
When examining the foot, the subject stands barefoot on a solid support (bench, stool), the feet are parallel at a distance of 10-15 cm. The position of the calcaneus in relation to the lower leg (back view), the state of the longitudinal and transverse arches of the foot are determined. With a normal foot, the axes of the lower leg and heel coincide, with flat feet, most often the axes of the heel and lower leg form an angle that is open outward (shaft installation of the heel). The normal longitudinal internal arch of the foot in this position is clearly visible in the form of a niche from the end of the 1st metatarsal bone to the heel. You can freely enter the ends of the fingers into the niche. In the case of pronounced flat feet, the vault is pressed against the plane of the support. A sharply flattened foot in the area of the metatarsal heads, with fan-shaped toes, occurs with transverse flat feet. Next, the subject is asked to kneel on a chair facing the back of the chair - the feet hang freely. In this position, the supporting part of the foot is clearly visible, which differs sharply in a more intense color from the non-supporting part. Normally, the supporting part of the middle of the foot (isthmus) occupies approximately 1/3-1/2 of the transverse axis of the foot. If the support part increases and occupies more than half of the transverse axis,

the foot is considered flattened, more than 2/3 of the transverse axis - the foot is flat. At the same time, the supporting part of the foot in the area of the heads of the metatarsal bones is examined. Pressing and calluses in the middle this area indicate an inferior transverse arch.
To identify the initial degrees of flat feet, functional tests are carried out. One of them is that the barefoot patient rises several times on his toes. With a satisfactory condition of the musculoskeletal apparatus, supination of the heel and deepening of the outer and inner arches are observed. If the function of the muscles is significantly reduced, then the arch of the foot does not increase and supination does not occur. It is necessary to check the shoes used by the subject. A sharp wear of the inner side of the sole and heel indicates an increased load in the hindfoot area, the overhanging of the upper part of the shoe over the sole from the inner or outer side indicates an incorrect gait, a lateral curvature of the foot.
The podometric method for determining flat feet is carried out with special devices - stopometers. Podometry is a method of measuring the groan, reflecting the elastic oscillations of the arch of the longitudinal arch of the foot.
The method itself and a lightweight technique for measuring with a stopometer-podometer were proposed by M. O. Fridland. The length of the foot is measured from the end of the thumb or second (if it is larger) to the end of the heel and the height of the arch of the foot from the floor to the navicular bone. To determine the degree of flat feet, an index is calculated - the ratio of the height of the arch of the foot to its length, multiplied by 100 (Table 8.1).
There are several varieties of stopometers-podometers (M.O. Fridlyanda, V.N. Bekhtereva, A.V. Chogovadze, etc.).
Their fundamental arrangement is similar - it consists of 2 mutually perpendicular plates, one of which is marked with divisions

Moan score according to M.O. Fridlyacdu

Table 8.1

Index value

Conclusion on the state of the arches of the groan

25 and below
25,1-27,0
27,1 - 29,0
29,1-31,0
31,1-33,0
33,1 and higher

Sharp flat feet
Flat moan
lowered vault
Normal vault
Moderate excavation
Sharp excavation of the groan

in degrees (to determine the angle of deflection of the thumb), the other is marked with millimeter divisions, along which the sled slides. There are two more plates to determine the degree of valgation. M.O. Friedland measures the height of the arch of the groan from the floor to the upper edge of the navicular bone, O.V. Nedrigailov and V.N. Ankylosing spondylitis - to the lower edge of the navicular bone (to its tuberosity). To measure the foot, you can use a stopometer of other designs.
Podometry is also possible without a stopometer: the subject is placed on a sheet of paper so that his feet form a right angle with respect to the shins. The height of the moan is determined by measuring the distance from the upper surface of the navicular bone to the floor with a compass. Each of the feet is outlined on paper with a pencil, holding it perpendicularly. Along the contour, measure with a ruler (in millimeters) the length of the foot from the tip of the first toe to the rear edge of the heel. Calculate the submetric index (1):
i = / (foot height) . ioo.
Yo (foot length)
With a stopometer or along the contour of the foot, you can also determine the width indexes of the foot (in the narrow and wide parts of it). With transverse flat feet, there is an increase in the submeter width in relation to the length of the foot up to 42% or more (instead of the normal 40%).
According to A.G. Pashkova, the highest indicators of the height of the arch of the foot are observed in the group of lyoki-iiks (33.5-33.2%) and in swimmers (33.0-32.7%). In third place is the group of weightlifters (32.1-32.4%), and in this group the arch on the left foot is higher than on the right. Significant indicators of the height of the arch of the groan in the group of weightlifters convince of the beneficial effect of lifting weights on the height of the arch of the groan.
In the group of boys and girls (16-19 years old) who go in for swimming, the indicators of the height of the arch of the moan are higher than those of people who do not go in for sports (29.0-28.6% and 25.2-24.9%, respectively).
This indicates a beneficial effect of swimming lessons on the change in the height of the inner arch of the foot and allows us to consider classes as a method of preventing a lowered arch of the foot in children.

Measurement of the longitudinal dimensions of the body

For the correct measurement of body length, a number of requirements must be met.

Recommendations for measuring the body length of children. The length of the body of children should be measured with the body stretched out. One examiner presses the child's heels to the floor; the other takes the child with both hands under the mastoid processes and gently presses upward, indicating to the child that he should stretch as high as possible. This technique eliminates or reduces daily fluctuations in body length, which otherwise can be pronounced (from 1.5 to 3.5 cm). When measuring adult subjects, these manipulations are not necessary, since due to muscle tension, fluctuations can be smoothed out!

Sitting body length measurement (torso, neck and head lengths). The person being measured sits on the stool of the stadiometer, touching its vertical bar with the buttocks, back at the level of the shoulder blades and the back of the head. It is necessary to ensure that the legs are closed, the head is in the position described above. Measurements are made as described above. When measuring body length while sitting with an anthropometer, the latter is installed on a stool, on which the person being measured sits with a straight back.

Measurement of the length of the arm and its segments. The measured is in the position of the main anthropometric stand, the height of the shoulder point above the level of the floor or shield on which the subject stands, and the height of the tip of the middle finger of the examined hand above the same level are determined; arm length is equal to the difference between these values. Shoulder length is measured with an anthropometer from the shoulder point to the radius at the upper edge of the head of the radius. The true arm length is equal to the difference between the measured values. The length of the forearm is measured from the radial point to the styloid - at the distal end of the radius. The length of the hand is measured from the styloid point to the finger point at the end of the third finger.

Measurement of the length of the leg and its segments. Measurement of the length of the lower limb is difficult because it is difficult to accurately determine the proximal point from which measurements should be taken. In this regard, the authors propose to define the upper point in different ways. French anthropologists take the top of the greater trochanter as the starting point for measurement, German anthropologists take the upper anterior iliac spine. R. Martin proposes to determine the length of the lower limb from the anterior iliac spine to the sole (floor), and subtract 5 cm from the result for men and 4 cm for women. Undoubtedly, the data obtained in this way cannot be accurate , since the distance from the superior anterior iliac spine to the femoral head is subject to sharp individual fluctuations.

All of the above methods for determining the length of the lower limb do not give its true dimensions, corresponding to the skeletal ones. The most accurate method was proposed by K. Z. Yatsuta, who found that the upper edge of the femoral head corresponds to a point located midway from the upper anterior
iliac spine to the middle of the symphysis (Fig. 8.15). This point was called "groin".

The length of the foot is determined by an anthropometer from the heel point to the most protruding forward point of the foot "ultimate", which is located at the end of the second or first toes.

Measurement of the length of the spine and its sections is carried out with the subject in the main anthropometric stance.

The total length of the spine is measured from the inion point to the tip of the coccyx. First, the anthropometer measures the position of the “inion” point above the floor, then the coccyx. The length of the spinal column is determined by subtracting the second measurement from the result of the first measurement. The length of the cervical spine is measured from the "inion" point to the middle of the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra, that is, the cervical point. The length of the thoracic region is measured from the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra to the upper edge of the spinous process of the XII thoracic vertebra. The length of the lumbar is measured from the upper edge of the spinous process of the XII thoracic vertebra to the lower edge of the spinous process of the V lumbar vertebra, that is, the lumbar point. The length of the sacrococcygeal section is determined from the lower edge of the spinous process of the 5th lumbar vertebra to the top of the coccyx. Often in research, the total length of the movable part of the spine, measured from the "inion" to the lumbar point, is used.

It must always be remembered that due to the presence of natural curves of the spine, its total length is always less than the sum of separately measured sections.

Measurement of the transverse dimensions of the body

The width of the shoulders is determined between the shoulder points, that is, between the most protruding points in the lateral direction of the upper lateral edge of the acromial process of both sides of the shoulders. The value obtained as a result of measurements characterizes the through size between these points. The transverse (frontal) diameter of the chest is measured with a thick caliper between points located at the intersection of the midaxillary line and a horizontal line drawn through the attachment of the IV rib to the sternum, that is, through the midsternal point.

All indicators of the chest are taken at the time of the respiratory pause.
Pelvic measurements. All measurements of the pelvis are made in the position of the person being measured standing with tightly closed hips. With anthropometric measurements, it is customary to determine three frontal and one sagittal size of the pelvis (Fig. 8.17).

The width of the pelvis 2 is determined between the iliac-spinous anterior points of the right and left sides. The measurement is made in the same way as in the previous case.

Measurements on the upper limb. The width of the condyle of the shoulder is determined with a caliper with the elbow joint bent. One leg of the compass is placed on the medial condyle - the eminence of the humerus, most protruding inward, the second - on the lateral epicondyle - the eminence of the condyle of the humerus, protruding outwards.

The measurement of the width of the hand is made at the level of the heads of the metacarpal bones of the fully extended fingers of the hand. One leg of the compass is placed on the outer surface of the heads of the second metacarpal bone, the second - on the inner surface of the head of the fifth metacarpal bone.

The width of the bones of the lower leg is determined between the ankles of the fibula and tibia; the measurement is similar to the measurement on the forearm.

The measurement of the width of the foot is made with a caliper at the level of the heads of the metatarsal bones. The subject must stand up, evenly leaning on both feet.